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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE 



ESSENTIALS 



LATIN GEAMMAE 



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BY 



FT A; BLACKBURN. 






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Nobis prima sit virtus perspicuitas, propria verba, rectus ordo ; 
neque desit neque superfluat. — Quint. Inst. viii. 2, 22. 



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PUBLISHED BY GINN, HEATH, & CO. 

1883. 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by 

F. A. BLACKBURN", 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



J. S. Cushing & Co., Printkrs, Boston. 



PREFACE 



THIS book is the outgrowth of several years' experience in teach- 
ing Latin to beginners. Portions of it were drawn up some 
years ago for the use of my own classes ; the success that has followed 
the use of them has led to the completion of the lacking portions and 
the publication of the whole. 

The objects kept in view in compiling the book were two: without 
omitting essentials, to make a book small enough to be mastered by a 
beginner, and to arrange the principles of grammar contained in it as 
systematically as possible, thus making them easy to learn and easy to 
keep. The first object I have tried to secure by studied conciseness 
of statement and by the omission of all that Latin has in common 
with English, e.g., definitions of the parts of speech, kinds of sen- 
tences, subject, object, etc. ; rules for the use of adverbs, conjunctions, 
and the like. The object of these omissions, however, was not brevity 
alone, but rather simplicity. I have assumed that the book will be 
put into the hands of pupils who have already studied English Gram- 
mar, and I believe that loss of time is only a part of the harm of 
requiring a pupil to relearn a grammatical definition or principle 
couched in new words. The book will not be found suitable, there- 
fore, for pupils who have not mastered the elements of grammar, 
unless the teacher shall supplement it with the needed definitions. 

The second point aimed at is partly a matter of grammatical sys- 
tem, partly of typography. Whether my classification of the facts 
and principles of the Latin tongue is any help to the pupil in learning 
them and keeping them, is a question for the teacher who may use the 



PREFACE. 



book. The arrangement of these facts and principles on the page, 
however, will commend itself, I hope, to all. The coarser print con- 
tains those portions of the grammar of the language, which, in my 
judgment, should be absolutely mastered; the smallest amount to 
which memorizing can be limited. The notes contain illustrations, 
explanations, and those limitations of grammatical principles which 
are the outgrowth of usage, and which should be gradually learned by 
daily reference in the course of reading a Latin author. Much that 
is in the notes should be memorized ; how much, is a question left to 
the judgment of the teacher, and the answer will depend on circum- 
stances : the amount of time at the disposal of the class, the age and 
character of the pupils, the requirements of the college they have in 
view, etc. The duplicate numbering serves to connect the notes to 
the statements they illustrate or explain, and is simple enough, I hope, 
to save the vexation and loss of time incurred in trying to find a 
reference in a book systematically sub-divided and classified. The 
numbering answers the same purpose as paging : convenience of refer- 
ence. A bracketed reference refers to a note ; such a reference, given 
orally, may be called simply "note" e.g. [142] may be read " note 142." 
It is not claimed, of course, that so small a book contains a com- 
plete exposition of the principles of the Latin tongue, or a complete 
history of the growth of the forms and usage of Latin speech, and the 
book is not intended for those who pursue the study of the language 
so far. Such should provide themselves with larger and fuller trea- 
tises. It is intended for that class of pupils who study Latin in school 
and college for the training it gives in clearness of thought and ex- 
actness of speech, but whose tastes or plans of life and work do not 
lead them to the higher and more attractive study of the life and 
growth of the language. I have, therefore, omitted discussions of the 
origin and growth of forms and idioms, or of the development of 
syntactical usages, as well as all illustrations drawn from comparative 
grammar. I have tried to include, however, all the grammatical in- 
formation needed for a high school or for the early years of a college ; 



PREFACE. 



to the point, in fact, where the better colleges now give the pupil the 
option of continuing classical studies, or substituting other branches 
more to his taste. I have tried, moreover, to so arrange the facts and 
usages of Latin speech, that the pupil who carries his studies beyond 
the limit of the book, shall not be obliged to unlearn, but only to sup- 
plement, what he has already mastered. 

It is proper to add that I put forth no claim to original research, 
my object being to make a school-book. If the plan and arrangement 
do not justify its publication, there is nothing else in it to do so. I 
have not tried, moreover, in seeking for the best and clearest arrange- 
ment, to avoid what has been already used by others. I have freely 
taken from every source, whatever, in the way of expression or classi- 
fication, seemed good for my purpose. The teacher who is familiar 
with the various Latin grammars issued within the last twenty years, 
will find much taken directly from them ; more than I can acknowl- 
edge in detail. On questions of fact and usage, I have depended 
almost entirely on Roby's Latin Grammar, and have drawn freely on 
his citations from Latin authors, for illustrative examples. His full 
collections of illustrative words and sentences have saved a great 
amount of labor that would have been needed to find appropriate 
illustrations. 

I shall be grateful for criticism from any source, especially for cor- 
rections or suggestions from teachers who may have occasion to test 
the value of the book by actual use with classes. 

F. A. BLACKBURN. 

San Francisco, Cal., Feb. 17, 1883. 



OO^TE^TS 



PART I. — SOUNDS. 

Alphabet and Pronunciation 1-13 

Alphabet 1 

Vowels, their sounds 2 

Open and close vowels 3 

Diphthongs 4 

Sounds of diphthongs 5 

Sounds of the consonants 6-11 

Classification of consonants . . 12 

Double consonant x 13 

Quantity and Accent 14-20 

Long syllables 14, 15 

Short syllables 16,17 

Common syllables 18 

Accent . _ 19,20 



PART II. — FORMS. 

Inflection 21-26 

Inflection 21,22 

Inflection of nouns 23 

Inflection of adjectives 24 

Inflection of pronouns 25 

Inflection of verbs 26 

Stem and Suffixes; Theme and Endings . . . 27-29 

Stem and suffixes 27 

Theme and endings ........ 28, 29 



CONTENTS. 



Gender ...... 

Three genders 

Natural and grammatical gender 
Naturally masculine nouns 
Naturally feminine nouns 
Naturally neuter nouns . 
Naturally common nouns 



Person, Number and Case 

Person and number . 

Cases 

Nominative case 

Genitive case . 

Dative case 

Accusative case 

Vocative case 

Ablative and locative cases 

Direct and oblique cases 

The Declensions 

Six forms of declension 
Two groups . ... 
Open-vowel declensions 
Close-vowel and consonant 



The a-declension 

Theme and stem 

Endings 

Locative of a-stems 

Gender of a-stems 
The e-declension . 

Theme and stem 

Endings . 

Gender of e-stems 
The ©-declension . 

Theme and stem 

Endings . 

Vocative of o-stems . 

Locative of o-stems 

Stems in -61*0 

Stems in -io 

deus, its irregularities 

Gender of o-stems . 



declensions 



30-40 

30 

31 

. 32,33 

34-36 

. 37,38 
39,40 

. 41-49 

41 
42 
43 
44 

45 
46 

47 
48 
49 

. 50-53 

50 
51 
51 
51 

52-56 

52 

53,54 

55 

56 

. 57-60 

57 

58 

59,60 

. 61-69 

61 

. 62,63 

64 

65 
66 
61 
68 



CONTENTS. 



Adjective stems in -a and -© 70-72 

Declension of a- and o-stem adjectives ..... 70 

Irregular adjectives 71 

duo and ambo q 72 

The Consonant-declension 73-90 

Theme and stem 73 

Endings 74, 75 

Weakening of stem-vowel ....... 76 

Locative of consonant-stems 77 

Loss of ending in semi-vowel stems 78 

Loss of n in nominative singular 79 

Stems in -er 80 

Irregularities 81 

Gender of consonant-stems 82-90 

Adjectives with Stems in a Consonant .... 91-93 

Declension of consonant-stem adjectives .... 91 

Adjectives comprised 92, 93 

The *-declension 94-105 

Theme and stem 94 

Classes of i-stems 95-98 

Endings 99-101 

Stems in -eri 102 

Gender of i-stems 103-105 

Adjectives with Stems in -* 106-108 

Declension of i-stem adjectives 106 

Adjectives comprised 107, 108 

The ^-declension 109-113 

Theme and stem 109 

Endings 110,111 

Monosyllabic u-stems 112 

Gender of u-stems 113 

Irregular Declension 114-117 

Numeral Adjectives 118 

Comparison of Adjectives ....... 119-123 

Suffixes of comparison 119, 120 

Stems in -er, -ero, -eri, -Ili 121 

Compounds of -dicus, -ficus, -volus . . . . 122 

Comparison by the use of magis, maxime .... 123 



CONTENTS. 



Forms of Pronouns 124-141 

The personal pronouns 124 

Declension of the personal pronouns .... 125 

Possessive pronouns 12G 

Demonstrative pronouns 127, 128 

Declension of is, ea, id . 129 

Declension of iste, ista, istud 130 

Declension of ille, ilia, illud . . . . . . 131 

Declension of ipse, ipsa, ipsum 132 

Declension of hie, haec, hoc 133, 134 

Strengthened forms of ille and iste 135 

Declension of idem, eadem, idem .... 136, 137 

Declension of the relative pronoun, qvi, qvae, qvod . 138 

Declension of the interrogative pronoun, qvis, qvae, qvid . 139 
Declension of the indefinite pronoun, qvi or qvis . . 140 

Declension of the indefinite compounds of qvi or qvis . 141 

Forms of the Verb 142-154 

Tenses and moods of the finite verb .... 142-147 

Non-finite verb-forms 148-152 

Passive verb-forms 153 

Deponent verbs 154 

Verb-stems 155-169 

Forms of verb-stems 155 

Simple stem ; present stem ; perfect stem .... 156 

Formation of present stem 157-162 

Formation of perfect stem 163-167 

Principal parts of the verb . . . . . . 168, 169 

Verbal Suffixes 170-190 

Two elements of verb-suffixes 170 

Mood-and-tense signs ........ 171-177 

Tense-base 178 

Suffixes of finite verb-forms 179-182 

Suffixes of non-finite verb-forms 183-187 

Endings of perfect active indicative and infinitive . 188-190 

The Conjugations 191-214 

Five conjugations ■ . . . . 191 

Theme of the incomplete tenses ..... 192 

Inflection of the incomplete tenses 193 

Endings of the incomplete tenses ; a-stems . . . 194, 195 

Endings of the incomplete tenses ; e-stems . . . 196, 197 



CONTENTS. 



Endings of the incomplete tenses ; consonant and u-stems 198, 199 

Two forms of inflection of i-stems 200 

Endings of the incomplete tenses ; short i-stems . . 201, 202 
Endings of the incomplete tenses ; long i-stems . . 203, 204 

Theme of the complete tenses 205 

Endings of the complete tenses 206 

Formation of the complete tenses ; passive voice . . 207 

Theme of simple stem forms 208 

Endings of simple stem forms . . . . . 209 

Periphrastic forms made from the participles . . 210-214 

Irregular Verb-forms 215-229 

Loss of v in perfect stem 215 

Loss of imperative ending in die, due, fac . . . 216 

Specially irregular verbs 217-220 

sum, esse, f ui 221 

Compounds of sum 222 

edo, edere, edi, esum . . . . . . 223 

fero, ferre, tuli, latum 224 

volo, velle, volui ; nolo, nolle, nolui ; malo, malle, malui 225 

do, dare, dedi, datum 226 

eo, ire, ivi, itum 227 

qveo, qvire, qvivi, qvitum; neqveo, heqvire, neqvivi, 

neqvitum 228 

flo, fieri 229 

Impersonal and Defective Verbs 230-235 



PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. 

Roots and Stems . . 236-238 

Roots 236 

Stems 237,238 

Formation of Nouns 239-241 

Nouns from nouns 239 

Nouns from adjectives 240 

Nouns from verbs 241 

Formation of Adjectives 242-24:4 

Adjectives from nouns 242 

Adjectives from adjectives 243 

Adjectives from verbs . . . . . . . 244 



CONTENTS. 



Formation of Verbs . . . . . . . 245-247 

Verbs from nouns and adjectives ..... 245, 246 

Verbs from verbs ........ 247 

Formation of Adverbs . ■ 248, 249 

Case forms used as adverbs 248 

Adverbs from nouns, adjectives and verbs .... 249 

Formation of Prepositions, Conjunctions and Interjections 

250, 251 
Composition 252 



PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



Person, Number, Voice, Concord 

Person, number and voice . 
Agreement of the appositive . 
Agreement of the adjective 
Agreement of the pronoun 
Agreement of the finite verb 



Use of the Cases 
Nominative 
Vocative 
Accusative 
Dative 
Locative 
Genitive . 
Ablative 

Use of the Tenses 

General use 
Perfect definite and indefinite 
Primary and secondary tenses 
Sequence of tenses 



Use of the Moods 

Indicative of statement . 
Indicative of question 
Imperative of command 
Subjunctive of doubtful statement 
Subjunctive of doubtful question . 
Subjunctive of doubtful command 



253-257 

253 

254 
255 
256 

257 

258-308 

258-260 
261 
262-268 
269-272 
273, 274 
275-291 
292-308 

309-312 



310 
311 
312 



313-333 

313 
314 
315 
316 

317 
318-321 



CONTENTS. 



xm 



Subjunctive of dependent statement 
Subjunctive of dependent question . 
Subjunctive of dependent command 
Subjunctive in purpose clauses . 
Subjunctive in result clauses . 
Subjunctive in conditions impliedly false 
Subjunctive in causal clauses 
Subjunctive in concessive clauses 
Subjunctive in temporal clauses 
Subjunctive in future conditions 
Subjunctive in general conditions . 
Subjunctive by attraction . 



Use of the Non-finite Verb-forms 

The infinitive 

Uses of the infinitive . 

The participles ..... 

Uses of the participles . 

Peculiar force of the passive participles 

The gerund 

The gerundive 

The supine . . . . 



322 
323 
324 
325 

326 
327 
328 
329 
330 
331 
332 
333 

334-352 

334 

335-342 
343 

344-346 
347 
348 
349 

350-352 



PART V. — THE LAWS OF LATIN VERSE. 



Quantity 353-397 

Latin versification 353 

General rules of quantity 354 

Special rules of quantity 355 

Tendencies affecting quantity 356-363 

Quantity of stem-vowels and suffixes of nouns . . 364-373 

Quantity of stem-vowels and suffixes of pronouns . . 374-379 
Quantity of nominative singular of consonant-stems . 380-384 

Quantity of verb-forms 385-394 

Quantity of uninflected monosyllables 395 

Quantity of uninflected polysyllables .... 396, 397 

Versification 398-421 

Long and short syllables . . . . . . . 398 

Feet 399 

Fundamental feet ........ 400-404 



xiv CONTENTS. 



Substitute feet 405 

Dipodies 406 

Verses and their names . . . . . . 407, 408 

Most common kinds of verse . . . . . . 409 

Dactylic hexameter 410, 411 

Dactylic pentameter . . 412, 413 

Iambic and trochaic verse 414-416 

Laws of the structure of Latin verse .... 417-421 

Supplement to Syntax 

A. Negative particles 422-425 

B. Interrogative particles 426-434 

C. Use of the pronouns ....... 435-445 

D. Forms of conditional sentences 446-456 

E. Eeported speech . 457-478 

F. Order of words and clauses 479-486 

G. Dates ......... 487-497 

Appendix. — List of Verbs ....... 498 

Index of Topics 499 

Index of Words 500 



ESSENTIALS OF LATIN GRAMMAR 



PART L— SOUNDS. 



1. Alphabet and Pronunciation. 

The Latin alphabet has no w ; otherwise it is like 
the English. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. They are sounded, 
when long, like the same vowels in the English words, 
father, they, inque, ore, rude. When short, they have 
the same sound, but more shortly uttered ; nearly like 
the same vowels in half, them, pick, obey, full. 



[1] K is found in Old Latin, but is rare in the later language, being 
replaced by c. Q is used for c before v. I was used for both i and j, 
and n for both u and v; but they are often distinguished in modern 
print, except that n is used for v after q, g, and s. (For the sake of 
exactness, they are distinguished in this book, j and v being always con- 
sonants, i and u vowels.) 

Y and z are, strictly speaking, not Latin letters, but were borrowed 
from the Greek. They are found only in Greek words. 

[2] Long vowels are marked a, e, 1, o, u ; short, a, e, I, o, u. Some- 
times in manuscripts and inscriptions long vowels are indicated by writing 
them double. For long i, ei is written in such cases (not ii). 

EUPHONIC CHANGES OF VOWELS. 

(a) Before final consonants, except s, long vowels are often shortened. 

(b) Before ns and nf short vowels are lengthened. 

(c) The short vowels are often "weakened," sometimes from a shifting 
of the accent, often without any apparent reason. The tendency in vowel- 
weakening is from " open " to " close." (See 3.) Thus a weakens to o and u, 
or to e and i ; o weakens to vi, e to i. Less often o Aveakens to e, u to i. 

(d) The same weakening sometimes takes place in long vowels and 
diphthongs, but rarely. 

(e) This tendency is checked and modified by various causes, a common 
one being the character of the following sound. Thus the open vowels 
(see 3) are favorites before two consonants, the close ones before single 
mutes ; the open vowels before liquids and spirants, the close ones before 
nasals and s. 



PART I. — SOUNDS. 



7 

8 

9 

10 

11 



A, e, o, are open vowels ; i, u, close vowels. 
The diphthongs are made up of an open vowel- 
sound, followed by a close one. Each sound is 
uttered, but the two are run into one syllable in 
pronunciation. 

The diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, an, eu. Ae is 
sounded like English ay (= yes'); oe like oi in toil; 
au like ou in loud; ei as in eight; eu as in feud. 

The consonants are sounded as in English, except 
that 

C and g are always " hard," as in cave, give, 
J sounds like y in young. 
T sounds like t in tongue. 
S sounds like s in sin. 
Y sounds like w in win. 



[3] So named from the fact that the organs of speech are more open, 
or less open in uttering them. A is more open than e or o ; the latter are, 
therefore, sometimes called "medial" vowels. 

[4] In Old Latin is found the complete schedule of diphthongs, ai, ei, oi, 
au, eu, ou. In the later language ai becomes ae; ei usually becomes e 
or i; oi becomes oe; ou becomes u. In some cases this weakening ten- 
dency has gone still further, weakening ae and oe also to e and u. The 
simple vowels which thus replace the older diphthongs then become subject 
to the same weakening tendency as single vowels. 

[6] H is sounded as in English, but seems to have originally had a 
stronger sound, as it stands in place of an older guttural mute. Before 
s and t it changes or reverts to c. 

M and s in Old Latin seem to have been but slightly sounded, and, when 
final, are often dropped. 

Y and z of Greek words are generally sounded as in English, but it 
is supposed that y had the sound of French u. 

The compounds ch, th, ph, are also found in Greek words. It is 
customary to sound them as in English chasm, thin, phase, although it is 
believed that the Romans sounded them in such a way as to give each 
letter its own sound; i.e., as c, t, and p, followed by an h-sound. 



ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. 



The consonants are classified as follows : — 





Mutes. 


Semi-vowels. 


Breathed. 


Voiced. 


Nasal. 


Liquid. 


Spirant. 


Sibilant. 


Guttural . . . 
Linguo-palatal . 
Linguo-dental . 
Labio-dental . . 
Labial .... 


C(k,q) 
t 

P 


S 

d 
b 


n 
n 

m 


i, r 


h 

i 

f 

V 


S 



X (called a double consonant) is a short way of 



writing cs. 



12 



13 



[12] The name "voiced" is given to those sounds, the utterance of 
which is attended by a vibration of the vocal chords, thus making " voice ; 
the others, consisting of mere expulsion of breath, are called " breathed." 
Of the semi-vowels, f and s are breathed ; the others are voice-letters, as 
are also all the vowels. The names "guttural," etc., refer to the organs 
used in uttering the sounds. 

Qv and gv are treated as single consonants by the Latins, like single 
c and g. In many words the spelling varies between qv and c. 

EUPHONIC CHANGES OF CONSONANTS. 

(a) The sounds of j and v are so much like those of i and u that they 
are not only represented by the same letters, but, in poetry, are sometimes 
interchanged. Thus abiete becomes abjete ; Gajus becomes Gaius ; cui 
becomes cvi ; silvae becomes siluae, etc. V regularly becomes u when 
brought before a consonant; sometimes qv becomes cu, but usually c. 

(b) Doubled consonants at the end of a word are not found in Latin, 
but one is dropped. Often, also, in the middle of a word, one consonant 
is written where the derivation or formation would require two. 

(e) Between two vowels s usually changes to r, and h and v are often 
dropped. J sometimes drops before i, and s sometimes changes to r in 
other positions than between vowels. 

Consonant sounds are often modified when brought together in inflec- 
tion or word-formation. Usually the preceding sound adapts itself more 
or less fully to the following. Thus : 

(d) Before s, t and d become s. [ss thus formed is often changed to s. 
See (b) above.] 



PART I. — SOUNDS. 



14 
15 


2. Quantity and Accent. 

A syllable is long 

(a) When it contains a long vowel or a diphthong. 
(5) When its vowel, naturally short, is followed 
by two consonants. 



(e) Before a liquid, n is often changed to that liquid. 

(f) In the prepositions ab, ad, ob, sub, com, in, this tendency goes 
much further, and the final sound of these words is assimilated to various 
sounds. (Assimilation of a preceding to a following sound also occurs in 
many other cases, which cannot be enumerated or classified in an elemen- 
tary work.) 

In cases (d), (e), and (/), there is entire assimilation of the preceding 
sound to the following one. In the following, partial assimilation takes 
place. 

(g) Before a breath-consonant, the voice-mutes change to the corre- 
sponding breath-mutes. But assimilation often takes place, especially of 
the final mutes of prepositions, and dt and tt often change to st, ss, or s. 
G, h, gv, and qv change to c before a following s, and make x, i.e., cs. 
Bs is generally written, but is always, pronounced as ps. 

(h) Before a mute the nasals become of the same character as the mute, 
m before labials, n before palatals and dentals. (N has two sounds, as in 
English ; that of a palatal nasal (Eng. sing) before palatal mutes, and that 
of a dental nasal (Eng. sin) elsewhere.) M before s is changed to n or 
assimilated, but in some cases a parasitical p is inserted between m and s ; 
e.g., hiemps (for hiems), sumpsi (for sumsi), etc. 

(i) In combinations of consonants difficult to utter, one is often dropped. 

(The changes given here are not always made in writing, and it is not 
easy to decide how fully they were made in speaking. Perhaps it would 
be the wisest course for a beginner to pronounce the words as he finds 
them written.) 

[14] Whether any particular vc^el is long or short, must often be 
learned by consulting a lexicon, but vowels formed by contraction are 
long. 

[15] A mute or f followed by 1 or r does not make a long syllable, but 
a common one. See 18. X and Greek z are two consonants, and qv, 
gv are single consonants. See [12]. To make a long syllable, one of the 
consonants must be in the same word with the preceding short vowel ; a 



QUANTITY AND ACCENT. 




5 


A syllable is short 






(V) When it contains a short vowel. 




16 


(Z>) "When its vowel, naturally long, is 


followed b} r 


17 


another vowel. 






A syllable is common 






[i.e., long or short at the option of the 


writer] 




(a) When its vowel, naturally short, 


is followed 


18 


by a mute or f with 1 or r. 







final short vowel seldom makes a long syllable with two consonants of the 
following word. Ch, th, ph also are single consonants in Greek, and do 
not make a long syllable, though two consonants are used in Latin to 
represent them. 

[17] An interposed h has no effect, and the rule applies to diphthongs as 
well as to single vowels. But in a few cases a vowel remains long or com- 
mon, though followed by another vowel ; viz. : — 

(a) The genitive singular endings, ai, ei, ius, and the dative singular 
pronoun ei. 

(b) The syllable f I in the verb fio, except before -er. 

(c) Proper names in -aius, -eiiis [poetical forms for -ajus, -ejus. See 
[12] (a)]. 

(d) eheu, dius, Diana, one, Rhea. 

(e) Many Greek words, which usually keep their own quantity. 

[18] The following combinations occur : pr, br, cr, gr, tr, dr, fr ; pi, 
el, f 1. But both consonants must be in the same word with the preceding 
vowel ; in different words (or in different parts of a compound) they make 
a long syllable. In Greek words, a mute followed by a nasal may make a 
short syllable with a preceding short vowel. 

(The vowels of 15, 17, and 18 are often called long, short, or common 
by position. The expression, though convenient, is inexact as regards long 
and common syllables ; for the syllable, not the vowel, is long or common. 
Such vowels should have their short sound ; but a long vowel before two 
consonants [e.g., before ns or nf) should, of course, have its long sound. 
In many cases, however, there is little or no evidence to show the natural 
quantity of the vowel ; but the pupil is more likely to be right in sounding 
it short.) 



PART L — SOUNDS. 





The accent in Latin is 


19 


(a) In words of two syllables, on the first syllable. 


20 


(5) In words of more than two syllables, on the 




penult, if that syllable is long; otherwise, 




on the antepenult. 



[19] The rules for the accent of Latin words are given by the Latin 
grammarians, who add also the following statements : — 

(a) Prepositions, when standing directly before their nouns, or before 
an adjective or genitive limiting their nouns, have no accent, but are pro- 
nounced as one word with the following. In other positions they are 
accented, with the exception of cum when it is attached enclitically to 
the ablative of pronoun forms. 

(b) The enclitic particles -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -pte, -dum (also -qve 
when it means and, and cum, inde and qvando when attached to a pre- 
ceding word) have no accent, but cause the accent to fall on the last 
syllable of the word to which they are attached; e.g., itaqve, and thus; 
exinde, thenceforth ; ecqvando, manedum, etc. 

(c) The accent may stand on the last syllable, or on a short penult, if a 
syllable has been lost; e.g., viden (for videsne), illic (for illice), nostras 
(for nostratis), Vergili (for Vergilii), etc. 

It is customary also, in words of several syllables, to put a secondary 
accent on the second or third syllable before the accented syllable. 

[20J Penult, last syllable but one ; antepenult, last but two. 

- 



PART II. — FORMS, 



Inflection. 



Inflection is a change in the form of a word to 
denote some modification of its meaning or to show 
its relation to other words. Nouns, adjectives, pro- 
nouns and verbs are inflected in Latin. 

Inflection in Latin, as in English, consists either in 
a change in the vowel of the word or in the addition 
of syllables; far more often the latter. Sometimes 
both methods are used. 

Nouns have inflections to denote number and case. 

Adjectives have inflections to denote gender, num- 
ber and case. 

Pronouns, when used substantively, have the in- 
flections of nouns ; when used adjectively, those of 
adjectives. 

Verbs have inflections to denote tense, mood, person, 
number and voice. 

Stem and Suffixes; Theme and Endings. 

Inflection, in Latin, usually consists in adding 
certain syllables to the ground-form or basis of the 
inflected word. This ground-form or basis is called 
a stem, and the added syllables are called suffixes. 



21 



22 



23 

24 

25 



26 



27 



1 21] E.g., servus, slave; servi, slave's ; pastor, shepherd; pastores, 
shepherds ; ama-s, love-st ; ama-t, love-s ; ama-vit, love-d ; etc. 

The inflection of nouns, adjectives and pronouns is often called declen- 
sion ; that of verbs, conjugation. 



PART II. — FORMS. 



When the stem ends in a vowel and the suffix 
begins with a vowel, the resulting contraction often 
obscures both stem-ending and suffix. For conven- 
ience of memorizing we therefore divide inflected 
words not only into stem and suffix but also into 
theme and ending. 

The theme is that part of the word which remains 
unchanged in inflection. The endings are the letters 
or syllables added to the theme to make the various 
forms of the word. 

Forms of Nouns and Adjectives. 

GENDER. 

There are three genders : masculine, feminine, neuter. 

Gender, in Latin, is fixed either by the meaning or 
by the form. When fixed by the meaning, it is called 
natural gender ; by the form, grammatical. 

Rules of natural gender : — 

. . f Names of male beings ) 

(«) 1 at £ • i , • r are masculine. 

(_ -N ames oi rivers ana mountains ) 

C Names of female beings ~\ 

(b) 1 Names of trees and plants > are feminine. 
(_ Names of countries, towns and islands ) 

. . f Indeclinable nouns ) 

(c) i ,-., 7 1 > are neuter. 
v y Phrases or clauses used as nouns 



( Names that may be used of either sex ] 

( Some names of beasts, birds, fishes andinsects j ° 



are common. 



[29] The tlieme is always the same as the stem with its final vowel 
removed, and the endings consequently contain the final vowel of the stem 
and the suffixes, both often obscured by contraction. If the stem ends in 
a consonant, the stem and theme are the same, and the endings are the 
simple suffixes. 

[31] The rules of grammatical gender will be given with the various 
declensions. 



FORMS OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 



PERSON, NUMBER, AND CASE. 

Iii person and number the Latin is like the English. 

There are five cases in common nse ; viz. : nom- 
inative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative. Two 
other cases, a locative and a vocative, are fonnd in 
a few words. 

The nominative corresponds to the English nom- 
inative, being the case of the subject. 

The genitive corresponds to the English possessive. 

The dative corresponds to the English indirect 
objective. 

The accusative corresponds to the English direct 
objective. 

The vocative corresponds to the English nominative 
in direct address. 

The ablative and locative have no corresponding 
cases in English. 



41 
42 



43 

44 
45 

46 

47 

48 



[33] Hadria, the Adriatic, is masculine, like names of rivers. 

The gender of rivers, trees, countries, etc., is the result of the simplicity 
of primitive thought and conception, which gave life and feeling to inani- 
mate objects. In many of these, however, the gender is fixed by the form, 
and they come under the rules of grammatical gender. In most words, 
also, there is no contradiction of form and meaning. 

[37] Strictly speaking, the neuters of 37 and 38 fix their gender neither 
by meaning nor by form, but they are put here for convenience. Words 
quoted only for their form, without regard to meaning, come under the 
head of indeclinable nouns; e.g., pater dixi, / said "pater"; pater est 
dissyllabum, "pater" is dissyllabic. 

[39] Common; i.e., sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine. 

[40] But in most of these sex is not thought of, and they are either 
masculine or take grammatical gender. 

Words borrowed from the Greek keep the gender they have in that 
language. 



10 PAKT II. — FORMS. 



49 



50 



51 



The nominative and vocative are sometimes called 
direct cases, the others oblique. The oblique cases 
are often rendered into English by prepositions. The 
genitive is most often rendered by of; the dative, by 
to or for ; the locative, by at or in ; the ablative, by 
from, by, in or with. 

The Declensions. 

Nouns and adjectives are inflected b}^ adding to 
the stem the proper case-suffixes. As these suffixes 
differ in certain cases and are often obscured in form 
by contraction with the final vowel of the stem, we 
have six forms of declension, as the stem ends in a 
consonant or in one of the vowels, a, e, i, o, u. 

These six forms fall naturally into two groups ; viz. : 

A. Stems in an open vowel (a, e, o). 

B. Stems in a consonant or a close vowel (i, u). 



[49] The details of the use of the cases must be learned from the 
Syntax. Only enough is given here to enable the pupil to master 
elementary exercises. 

[51] These groups are distinguished by different case-suffixes in certain 
cases; most clearly in the genitive, where A has sg. -I, pi. -rum; 
B, sg. -is, pi. -iim. 

Nouns and adjectives are usually classified into declensions according 
to the ending of the genitive singular; and lexicons give, therefore, not the 
stem, but the nominative and genitive singular. That the pupil may be 
able to refer each word to its proper declension, the usual method of 
classification is here added. 

First Declension, gen. sg. ending -ae = a-stems. 

Second " " " " -I = o-stems. 

Third " " " " -Is = consonant and i-stems. 

Fourth " " " " -fis = u-stems. 

Fifth " " " " -el = e-stems. 

The ending of the genitive singular, therefore, distinguishes all vowel- 
stems except those in -i. Rules for distinguishing i-stems from consonant- 



THE DECLENSIONS. 11 



THE ^-DECLENSION. STEMS ENDING IN -A. 

The theme of any a-stem may be found by dropping 
the ending of the genitive singular, -ae. The stem 
is found by adding a to the theme. 

The final a of the stem combines with the case- 
suffixes to make the following case-endings, by adding 
which to the theme any a-stem may be declined : — 

Sg. IS. -a PL N. -ae E.g., mens a mens ae 

G. -ae G. -arum mens ae mens arum 

D. -ae D. -is mensae mens is 

Ac. -am Ac. -as mens am mens as 

Ab. -a Ab. -is mens a mens Is 

The locative singular of a-stems has the ending -ae. 
The gender of a-stems is feminine. 



52 



53 



54 



55 
56 



stems, by the forms of the nominative and genitive singular, will be found 
under the i-declension. 

[54] The uncontracted ending -ai is sometimes found in the genitive 
singular ; also -um for arum in the genitive plural. 

Familia, in combination with pater, mater, filius, or filia, sometimes 
has the ending -as in the genitive singular. The same ending is found in 
a few other words in old Latin. 

Dea and filia usually form the dative and ablative plural with the end- 
ing -abiis ; a few others rarely. 

In poetry, words borrowed from the Greek often keep Greek endings in 
the singular. The following are found : nom. -e, -as, -es ; gen. -es ; ace. 
-an, -en; abl. -e. But the regular Latin endings are common. 

Various old endings are found in inscriptions and old Latin ; viz. : gen. 
sg. -aes ; dat. sg. -ai (diphthong?) ; abl. sg. -ad (the original abl. ending) ; 
nom. pi. -as; dat. and abl. pi. -eis (another spelling of -is. See [2]). In 
a few instances stems in -ia contract -iis in the dat. and abl. pi. to -is. 

[56] The rules of grammatical gender given with the declensions apply 
only to such nouns as do not come under the rules of natural gender, 
32-40. 



12 PART II. — FORMS. 



57 



58 



59 
60 



61 



62 



THE JE7-DECXENSION. STEMS IN -E. 

The theme of any e-stem may be found by dropping 
the genitive singular ending, -el. The stem is found 
by adding e to the theme. 

The case-endings are : — 

%. N. -es PL N. -es E.g., 

G. -el G. -erum 

D. -el D. -ebus 

Ac. -em Ac. -es 

Ab. -e Ab. -ebus 

Stems in -e are feminine, 

But dies is usually masc. ; meridies, always so. 

THE O-DECEENSION. STEMS IN -O. 

The theme of any o-stem may be found by dropping 
the genitive singular ending, -L The stem is found 
by adding o to the theme. 

The case-endings are : — 



dies 


dies 


die! 


di erum 


die! 


di ebiis 


diem 


dies 


die 


di ebus 









FOR MASCULINES 






Sg. N. 


-us 


PI 


IS. -I 


E.g. 


hort iis 


hort I 


G. 


-I 




G. -orum 




hort I 


hort orum 


D. 


-5 




D. -is 




hort 6 


hort is 


Ac. 


-iim 




Ac. -6s 




hort iim 


hort 6s 


Ab. 


-6 




Ab. -is 




hort 5 


hort Is 



[58] The ending of the genitive and dative singular is commonly -el 
when the theme ends in a consonant ; viz. : in fides, piebes, res, spes. 

Old or unusual endings are found ; viz. : gen. sg. -es, -e, -i ; clat. sg. -e, 
-I. Stems in -e lack the plural except dies and res, and a few found in the 
nom. and ace. pi. ; viz. : acies, effigies, facies, series, species, spes ; 
with eluvies (nom.) and glacies (ace). Other forms are cited by gram- 
marians, but not found in literature. 

A locative die is found in old Latin, and in certain (so-called) adverbs 
of time : postridie, pridie, etc. 



THE DECLENSIONS. 



13 











FOR NEUTERS. 




K 


-ttm 


PI, 


N". 


-a 


E.g. 


, don um 


dona 


a. 


-I 




G. 


-orum 




doni 


don orum 


D. 


-6 




D. 


-is 




don 6 


don is 


Ac. 


-tim 




Ac. 


-a 




don um 


dona 


Ab. 


-o 




Ab. 


-is 




don o 


don is 



Masculine o-stems have a vocative singular with 
the ending -e. 

The locative singular of o-stems has the ending -I. 

Most masculine stems in -ero drop the endings of 
the nominative and vocative singular, and many of 
them syncopate e in all the other cases. 

Stems in -io contract -ie of the vocative singular 
to i, often also -ii of the genitive singular to I. 

Deus has no vocative singular. In the plural, 



63 



64 

65 
66 



67 
68 



[62] The older endings -os, -6m, are sometimes found for -us, -um, 
especially after v ; also -um (or, after v, -om) for -orum. 

Old endings, found in inscriptions, etc., are gen. sg. -oe ( 7 ), -ei (see [2]) ; 
dat. sg. -oi; abl. sg. -od; nom. pi. -es, -e, -oe; also -ei (see [2]) ; dat. and 
abl. pi. -oes, -obus (in duo and ambo, see [72]). 

Nouns borrowed from the Greek sometimes keep Greek endings. The 
following are found : nom. sg. masc. -os ; neut. -on ; gen. sg. -o ; ace. sg. 
-on, -o ; nom. pi. masc. -oe ; gen. pi. -on. Many Greek words are confused 
in their forms, taking, in certain authors, or in certain cases, the endings of 
o-stems ; at other times, or in other cases, the endings of consonant-stems. 

[66] Thus (from the stem puero) puer, pueri, puero, etc.; (from the 
stem agero) ager, agri, agro, etc. Vir (stem viro) drops the nom. and 
voc. sg. endings. In old Latin, however, these endings are sometimes 
kept. 

[67] The voc. sg. of Tullius, for example, is Tulli. The accent in 
these shortened forms remains unchanged; e.g., Domiti (gen. or voc); 
imperi (gen.). See [19], (c). Other cases of stems in -io sometimes con- 
tract ii to i. Stems in -ajo, -ejo, when j changes to i [see [12] (a)], suffer 
a similar contraction. 



[68] Some editors print dii and diis also. 



14 



PART II. — FORMS. 



69 



70 



71 



72 





besides the regular forms, it has also nominative di, 
dative and ablative ells. 

Stems in -o with nominative singular ending -iim 
are neuter ; others are masculine. 

ADJECTIVE-STEMS IN -A AND -O. 

Adjective-stems in -a and -o are declined like 
noun-stems of like form. (The feminine is an 
a-stem ; the masculine and neuter, o-stems.) 

A few adjectives have in all genders -lus for geni- 
tive singular ending, and -I for dative singular. 

Duo and ambo have special irregularities. 



[69] But carbasus, humus, and vannus are feminine ; alvus and 
colus usually so. Domus (see [115]) is feminine. 
Tor pelagus, virus, vulgus, neuter, see [115]. 

[70] Adjective stems in -io are regular, and are not shortened in the 
genitive and vocative singular. 

[71] Viz., alius, nullus, solus, totus, ullus, unus, alter, uter, neu- 
ter. In poetry -lus is found, and, rarely, the regular endings. 

Alius has an ending -ud for -urn in the neut. sg. nom. and ace, and 
contracts -iius of the gen. sg. to -iiis. (An older stem ali is found in com- 
pounds and derivatives, and in the rare forms of the nom. sg. alis, alid. 
See under the I-declension, 94 ff.) 

Satur drops the nom. sg. masc. ending (like stems in -ero). 







EXAMPLES 


FOR PRACTICE 






altiis 


alta 


altum 


totus 


tota 


tottim 


alti 


altae 


alti 


totlus 


totius 


totius 


alt5 


altae 


alto 


toti 


toti 


toti 


altum 


altam 


altum 


tottim 


totam 


tottim 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 



tener tenera tenerum 

tener! tenerae tener! 

tenero tenerae tenero 
etc. etc. etc. 



alter altera alterum 

alterius alterius alterius 

alteri alter! alter! 
etc. etc. etc. 



THE DECLENSIONS. 



15 



THE CONSONANT-DECLENSION. STEMS IN A 


CONSONANT. 




The theme of 


an}' consonant-stem may be found 


73 


by dropping the 


genitive singular eudin 


g, -is. The 




stem is the same 


as the theme. 






The case-endings are : — 






FOR MASCULINES AXD FEMININES. 






Sg.l*. -s PL 


3ST. -es E.g., dux (= due 


s) duces 




G. -is 


G. -iim due is 


due iim 




D. -i 


D. -ibiis due I 


due ibiis 


74 


Ac. -era 


Ac. -es due em 


duces 




Ab.-e 


Ab. -ibiis due e 

FOR NEUTERS. 


due ibiis 




Sg.H. — PL 


X. -a. E.g., caput 


capit a 




G. -is 


G. -iim capit is 


capit iim 




D. -I 


D. -ibiis capit 1 


capit ibiis 


75 


Ac. — 


Ac. -a caput 


capit a. 




Ab. -e 


Ab. -ibiis capit e 


capit ibiis 





ater atra atrum 

atri atrae atri 

atr5 atrae atro 
etc. etc. etc. 

[72] duo duae diio 

duorum duarum duorum 

duobus duabus duobiis 

duos, duo duas duo 

du5bus duabus duobus 



liter iitra tttrum 

utrius utritis utnus 

utri utrl utri 
etc. etc. etc. 

ambo ambae ambo 
amborum ambarum amborum 
etc. etc. etc. . 



[74] 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
[("*)> (/)> (w)', and (c) show the gender.] 



princeps (c) 


constil (in) 


hiems (/) [78] 


genus (n) 


mel (n) [12] (6) 


principis 


consulis 


hiemis 


generis 


mellis 


principi 


consuli 


hiemi 


generi 


melli 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


miles (m) 


actor (m) 


leo (m) 79 


corpus (n) 


far (n) [12] (b) 


militis 


actoris 


leonis 


corporis 


f arris 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 



16 



PART II. — FORMS. 



76 



77 
78 

79 



The last vowel of the nominative singular is often 
weakened in other cases when a syllable is added. 
See [2] (<?). But in s-stems the stronger vowel is 
retained before r, though weakened before s in the 
nominative singular. 

The locative singular of consonant-stems ends in -I. 

Masculine and feminine semivowel-stems drop the 
ending of the nominative singular. 

Final n of a stem falls after o in the nominative 
singular. 



peciis (/) 


ebtir (n) 


homo (c) 79 


mos (m) 


pecudis 


eboris 


hominis 


moris 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


silex (c) 


agger (m) 


nomen (n) 


tellus (/) 


sili cis 


aggeris 


nominis 


telluris 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


rex (m) 


pater (m) 80 


car§ (/) [115] 


aequor (n) 


regis 


patris 


carnis 


aequorls 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 



In Greek words the Greek endings are sometimes kept. The following 
are found; viz.: gen. sg. -os ; dat. sg. -I; ace. sg. -a; nom. pi. -es; gen. 
pi. -on; dat. pi. -si; ace. pi. -as ; nom. and ace. pi. neut. -e (contracted 
from -ea). Greek stems in -at sometimes take a dat. and abl. pi. ending 
-is like o-stems, though this is not a Greek ending in consonant-stems. 
See [62]. 

Old case-endings of consonant-stems are gen. sg. -us, -es ; dat. sg. -e ; 
abl. sg. -ed, -id, -i; dat. and abl. pi. -ebus. 

[76] S-stems (except vas, see [115]) regularly become r-stems when a 
case-suffix is added. See [12] (c). Sometimes the final s of the nom. and 
ace. sg. becomes r, thus making them r-stems throughout. This change 
seems to have taken place in jecur and robur, which show the weaker 
vowel in the nominative, though the stronger o appears in the other cases ; 
and perhaps ebur and femur, which show the same peculiarity, may be 
explained in the same way. 

[78] Except hiem (the only stem in -m), nom. hiems [or hiemps. 
See [12] (A)]. 

[79] Not always, however, in nouns borrowed from the Greek. 



THE DECLENSIONS. 17 



A few stems in -er syncopate e, except in the nom- 
inative singular. (Compare stems in -ero, 66.^) 

A few cases occur where consonant-stems take the 
endings of i-stems. Such forms are irregular, a result 
of the confusion caused by the close likeness of the 
two declensions. 

Most mute-stems are feminine, 

_, , ( steins in -Ic with nom. in -ex ) n . 

But w „ are masculine. 

( " -it " " -es ) 

Stems in -on are masculine, 

But abstracts in -ion are feminine. 
Steins in -in with nominative in -o are feminine. 
Stems in -in with nominative in -en are neuter. 
Stems in -1 are masculine. 
Steins in -r and -s are neuter, 

But steins in -or and -6s are masculine. 



80 
81 

82 
83 

84 
85 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 



[80] Viz. : pater, mater, frater, accipiter. 

[81] Viz. : an abl. sg ending -I, or gen. pi. -ium. The latter is not 
unusual in stems in -tat, which seem to have once been i-stems % 

The following exceptions to the rules of gender are added for complete- 
ness, the more usual words being printed in larger type. Hiems (the 
only stem in -in) is feminine. 

[82] grex, paries, pes, calix, fornix, are masculine. 

lapis, adeps, forceps, larix, varix, are common. 

caput, cor, are neuter. 
[83] silex, cortex, forfex, imbrex, obex, rumex, are common. 
[86] ordo, cardo, turbo, are masculine. 

cupido, margo, are common. 
[87] pecten is masculine; (sangvis, see [115], is masculine). 
[88] fei and mel are neuter (also sal sometimes in singular). 
[89] agger, career, asser, later, vesper, vomer, are masculine. 

arbos, tellus, are feminine; cinis, pulvis, common; cucumis, 
masculine. 
[90] os is neuter. 



18 



PART II. — FORMS. 



91 



92 
93 



CONSONANT-STEM ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives with consonant-stems are declined like 
nonn-stems of like form, but most of them take -I as 
well as -e for the ablative singular ending, — a result 
of their likeness to i-stems. They comprise : — 

(a) Adjectives in the comparative degree. 

(5) Imparisyllabic adjectives with themes ending 
in a short syllable. 



[92] Comparatives are thus declined : — 

Sg. m. and r. n. PI. m. and r. n. 

altior altiiis altiores altiora 

altioris altiorum 

altiori altioribus 

altiorem altius altiores altiora 



altiore(i) 



altioribus 



Sg. N. PI. M. and F. N. 

plus plures plura 
(pluris) plurium 
pluribus 

plus plures plura 



(plure) 



pluribus 



Plus is defective in the sg., and the forms pluris and plure are rare. 
In the gen. pi. it takes the ending -ium of i-stems. Its compound com- 
plures (only plural) has in old Latin complur-ia as well as the regular 
complura. 

[93] Parisyllabic, having the same number of syllables in all cases of 
the singular. Those a- and o-stem adjectives which have become impari- 
syllabic by the loss of the nominative singular ending {i.e., stems in ero 
and satur) are, of course, not included. 

The adjectives included in (b) are few, and their meanings usually cause 
them to be used only of persons. They have no separate form in the 
singular for the neuter gender, but when necessary use the masc. and fern, 
form of the nom. as nom. and ace. neuter, sg. They are declined as 
follows : — 



Sg. m. and r. n. PL m. and f. n. 

dives divites [divita] 

divitis divitum 

diviti divitibus 

divitem dives divites [divita] 
divite divitibus 

As exceptions to (b), must be 
celer, which drop the nom. sg. 



Sg. M. and F. n. PI. M. and f. n. 

pauper pauperes paupera 

pauperis pauperum 

pauperi pauperibus 

pauperem pauper pauperes paupera 
paupere pauperibus 

set down a few i-stems ; viz. : par and 
ending (see [102]); also hebes, teres, 



THE DECLENSIONS. 19 



THE X-DECEENSION. STEMS IN I. 

The theme of any i-stem may be found by dropping 
the genitive singular ending, -is. The stem is found 
by adding i to the theme. 

The following classes contain all the i-stems in 
common use : viz. : — 



94 



95 



praecox, and compounds of -plex (except supplex). See [108]. A few 
adjective compounds of noun-stems have themes ending in a lontj syllable, 
but are declined, of course, like the nouns from which they are made ; e.g., 
discolor, discoloris, etc. Only a few forms of such are found, and it 
has not seemed necessary to add a third class to contain them. 

[94] I-stems have become much confused with consonant-stems through 
their close likeness in declension, and have been changed into consonant- 
stems in certain cases by the loss of i. They cannot, therefore, be distin- 
guished by the ending of the gen. sg. as other vowel-stems can, since the 
i is always lost in that case. 

A comparison of i-stem nouns with more primitive forms in Latin or 
kindred languages, shows that the i has arisen in many cases from an older 
a, e, o, or u, by weakening. Some i-stems show the older e in certain 
cases. In other words, the i is not found in kindred words in other lan- 
guages, and seems to be added in Latin. 

The i is kept or lost as follows : — 

In Class I., kept in nom. sg. (sometimes as e) ; also in some words in 
ace. and abl. sg. ; lost in gen. sg., and usually in abl. sg. The form of 
the dat. sg. would be the same whether i be kept or lost, and the ace. 
sg. ending -em may be considered an older form for -Im (like -es for -is in 
the nom. sg.), or a consonant-stem ending after i is lost. 

In Class II., kept in the abl. sg. ; also in a few words (as e) in the 
nom. and ace. sg. ; lost in gen. sg., usually in nom. and ace. sg. The 
dative may be either, as in Class I. 

In Class III., lost throughout the singular. 

In the plural of all three classes, i may be kept throughout ; but it is 
usually lost in the nom. and often in the ace. of masc. and fern, nouns. 

Occasionally, however, i is kept in cases where it is usually lost, or lost 
in cases where it is usually kept. This occurs more often in poetry for 
metrical convenience. 



20 PART II.— FORMS. 



96 
97 
98 



99 



I. Parisyllabic nouns in -es and -is. 
II. Neuters in -e, and neuters with themes in -al or -ar. 
III. Nouns with themes ending in an impure mute. 
These, hoAvever, are i-stems only in the plural, 
having lost i in the singular. 

The case-endings of i-stems of Class I. (masculine 
and feminine) are : — 



E. 





Sg. N. 


-es -is 


PL N". -es (-is) 




G, 


-is -is 


G. -iiim 




D. 


-I -T 


D. -ibiis 




Ac. 


-em -Im, -em Ac. -is, -es 




Ab. 


-e -I, -e 


Ab. -ibiis 


K 


nubes 


nubes 


turris turres 


G. 


nub is 


nub iiim 


turris turrium 


D. 


nubi 


nub ibiis 


turri turr ibiis 


Ac 


nub em 


nub is (es) 


turr im (em) turris (es) 


Ab 


. nub e 


nub lbiis 


turri (e) turr ibiis 



[96] Of Class I., canis and juvenis lose i and become consonant-stems 
iTi the plural ; sedes and vates usually ; occasionally, also, a few others. 

[98] Impure mute ; i.e., a mute preceded by a consonant. Of course 
nouns of this kind are not included if the gen. sg. ending shows them to 
be a-, o-, or u-stems. 

Cor, though an i-stem in compounds, loses i in the plural also, and 
becomes a consonant-stem throughout. Many other monosyllables, espe- 
cially those with a long stem-syllable, give evidence of having once been 
i-stems, and though the i is usually lost, it sometimes appears, especially 
in the abl. sg. or gen. pi. The Latin writers and grammarians were evi- 
dently uncertain as to the proper form in these words. All such words 
are put by the classification here given in the consonant declension, where 
the preponderance of evidence places them; but a list is subjoined, con- 
taining those words in which a pupil may occasionally meet with i-stem 
forms ; viz. : — 

cos, dos, faex, fraus, glis, lis, lux, mas, mus, pax. 

as, nix, plebs, scrobs, trabs, have a greater claim to be classed as 
i-stems ; the older forms, assis, ningvis, plebes, scrobis, trabes, show 
that they once belonged to Class I. 



THE DECLENSIONS. 



21 



The case-endings of i-stems of Class IT. (neut.) are : 





Sg. K 


-e or — 


PL K -ia 






G. 


-Is 


G. -iiim 






D. 


-I 


D. -ibiis 






Ac. 


-e or — 


Ac. -ia 






Ab 


-1(e) 


Ab. -Ibiis 




Kg, N. 


mar e 


mar ia. 


animal 


animal ia 


G. 


mar is 


marium 


animal is 


animal ium 


D. 


marl 


mar ibiis 


animal! 


animal Ibiis 


Ac. 


mare 


mar ia 


animal 


animalia. 


Ab 


marl 


mar Ibiis 


animal i 


animal Ibiis 



I-stems of Class III. have in the plural the same 
endings as those of Classes I. and II., but the endings 
of consonant-stems in the singular. (See 74 and 75.) 



100 



101 



[99] As ace. sg. ending, -Im is found in 

Ararim, Ligerim, puppim, sitim, Tiberim, vim. 

amussim, burim, cucumim, praesepim (?), ravim, tussim. 
As ace. sg. ending, both -im and -era are found in 

febrim, messim, navim, turrim (or febrem, etc.). 
era vim, cratim, lentim, pelvim, restim, sementim, seciirim (or 
cravem, etc.). 
As abl. sg. ending, -I is found in 
siti, vi. 

Aprili, cucttmi, Qvintili, ravi, rumi, securi, Sextili, tussi. 
As abl. sg. ending, both -i and -e are found in 

aedili, amni, angui, Arari, avi, civi, classi, colli, febri, 
fini, igni, imbri, Ligeri, navi, orbi, puppi, turri (or 
aidile, amne, etc.). 
axi, corbi, fusti, pelvi, posti, sodali, striglli, ungvi (or 
axe, etc.). 
The nom. pi. ending -is (or -eis, see [2]) is rare; in the ace. pi., modern 
editions usually give one ending in all words to the exclusion of the other. 
Which one is given is a matter of indifference as a question of grammar. 

[100] The abl. sg. ending -e is rare, except in names of towns. 

[101] In Class III., only partim shows the i kept in the ace. sg., and 
parti, lacti, sorti, in the abl. sg. As an adverb, the form partim is 



22 PAET II. — FORMS. 



102 



103 

104 
105 



106 



A few stems in -eri drop the ending of the nomina- 
tive singular, and syncopate e in all other cases. 
(Compare stems in -ero, 66, and -er, 80.) 

I-stems of Class I. with themes in n or s are 
masculine ; other i-stems of Class I. are feminine. 

I-stems of Class II. are neuter. 

In Class III. polysyllables are masculine; mono- 
syllables are feminine. 

ADJECTIVES WITH STEMS IN I. 

Adjectives with i-stems are declined like noun- 
stems of like form, but those of Class I. have only -I, 
the regular ending, in the ablative singular ; those of 
Class III. have both -I and -e. 



common ; the other forms are very rare, the i being regularly lost in the 
singular of Class III. 

[102] Viz. : imber, linter, uter, venter, and a few adjectives in the 
masculine. Arar, Liger, and the adjective par drop the nom. sg. ending 
(also celer in the masculine), but do not syncopate. 

[103] The exceptions in Class I. are : — 

(Theme in a mute) orbis ; fascis, ungvis ; antes, fustis, postis, sentis, 
vectis ; masculine. 
corbis, scrobis, torqvis ; common. 
(Theme in a liquid) collis, imber ; caulis, follis, buris, torris, uter, 
venter ; masculine. 
callis, linter \ common. 
(Theme in a nasal) finis, clunis ; common ; cuciimis, masculine. 
(Theme in -s) classis, messis, tussis ; feminine. 

[105] The exceptions in Class III. are : — 

dens, fons, mons, pons ; masculine; coh.ors, feminine ; lac, 

neuter. 

[106] Adjective-stems in -eri (except celer) generally syncopate e in 
all forms, except in the nom. sg. masc, and drop the ending of that case, 
thus gaining different forms for masc. and fem. nom. sg. This differen- 



THE DECLENSIONS. 



23 



To Classes I. and II. belong 

Parisyllabic adjectives in -is (m. and F.), -e (n.). 
To Class III. belong 

Imparisyllabic adjectives, with themes ending in 
a long syllable. 



107 
108 



tiation of form is not strictly observed, however ; acer, for example, is 
fern, as well as masc. in old Latin, and acris masc. as well as Jem. 

There is, in general, a stronger tendency toward i-stem forms in the 
adjective than in the noun. This is shown not only in i-stem adjectives, 
which retain the i more often than nouns, but also in consonant-stem 
adjectives, which often take I as the ending of the abl. sg. In spite of this 
tendency, however, the ace. sg. of adjectives has regularly the consonant- 
stem ending -em. 

[108] To Class III. belong also the numeral multiplicatives in -plex 
(e.g., duplex, two-fold; qvintuplex, Jive-fold ; etc.), and the adjectives 
hebes, teres, par, praecox. See [93]. The comparative plus is peculiar. 
See [92]. 

Adjectives of Class III. have no separate form for the neuter singular, 
but use the nom. masc. as nom. and ace. sg. neut. To this class belong 
tribal names in -ates and -Ites, and a few other words of like formation, 
generally found only in the plural, and used substantively (e.g., Arpi- 
nates, optimates, etc.), and verbal derivatives in -trix (commonly used 
as feminine nouns of agency) when used as adjectives (e.g., victrix). 

Adjectives with i-stems are declined as follows : — 



M. and f. N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


m. and f. n. 


m. and f. n. 


levis leve 


acer 


acris 


acre 


par 


amans 


levis 


acris 


acris 


acris 


paris 


amantis 


levi 


acri 


acri 


acri 


pari 


amanti 


levem leve 


acrem 


acrem 


acre 


parem par 


amantem amans 


lev! 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


pari(e) 


amante(i) 


leves levia 


celer 


celeris 


celere 


pares paria 


amantes amantia 


levium 


celeris 


celeris 


celeris 


parium 


amantium 


levibiis 


celeri 


celeri 


celeri 


paribus 


amantibus 


levis (es) levia 


celerem celerem celere 


paris(es) paria 


amantes(is) amantia 


levibiis 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


paribus 


amantibus 



A few compounds of consonant noun-stems have themes ending in a 
long syllable, but are consonant-stems of course, and may be regarded as 
exceptions. See [93]. Adjectives in the comparative degree are also 
consonant-stems. See [92] and [93]. 



21 



PAET II. — FOKMS. 





THE 


IT-DECLENSION. STEMS IN 


-17. 


109 


The theme of any u-stem may be found 


by dropping 




the genitive singular ending, -us. The stem is found 




by adding -u 


to the theme. 






The case-endings are : — 








FOR MASCULINES. 






Sg.N. -us 


PL ~N. -us E.g., purr us 


CUIT US 




G. -us 


G. -uiini curr us 


curr uiim 


110 


D. -ui (ii) D. -iibiis, Ibus cnrrui 


curr Ibiis 




Ac. -um 


Ac. -us currum 


curr us 




Ab.-u 


Ab. -iibiis, Ibus curru 

FOR NEUTERS. 


curr ibiis 




Sg.X. -a 


PL ~N. -ua E.g., cornu 


corn ua 




G. -us 


G. -uum corn us 


corn uiim 


111 


D. -u 


D. -ubiis, -Ibiis corn u 


corn ibiis 




Ac. -ii 


Ac. -ua cornu 


corn ua 




Ab.-u 


Ab. -iibus, -ibus cornu. 


corn ibiis 



[110] The gen. sg. sometimes has the uncontracted ending -uis, the 
gen. pi. (rarely) the contracted ending -um. 

The contracted ending -u of the dat. sg. is regular in neuters ; rare in 
masculines. 

The fuller ending -iibus of the dat. and ahl. pi. is found in acus, arcus, 
partus, tribus ; usually in artus, lacus, specus ; sometimes in portus, 
veru. 

An ending -I occurs a few times in the gen. sg., apparently from com 
fusion with o-stems from the same root. O-stem forms occur occasionally 
in other cases also, and many names of plants and trees are confused in 
their inflection, having both o-stem and u-stem forms. 

Old forms in inscriptions, etc., sIioav the ending of gen. sg. -uos. For 
-u and -us, -uu and -uus are sometimes written to show the length of the 
u. See [2]. 

A locative domui occurs rarely ; no other u-stems form a locative. 



IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 25 



Monosyllabic stems in -u retain the suffixes un- 
contracted -with the stem-vowel, and are therefore 
declined like consonant-stems. 

U-stems with nominative singular ending -us are 
masculine ; the others are neuter. 

Irregular Declension. 

Nouns and adjectives are irregular in declension — 
(a) From the retention of old endings. 
(6) From variation of the stem. 



112 



113 



114 
115 



[112] Viz. : grus, siis, and lues (when it drops i) ; with the irregular 
stems bu, Ju. But sus has subus and sttbus as well as suibus. 

The stems bu and Ju stand for the older diphthongal stems, bou-, Jou-. 
The diphthong changes u to v before a vowel (see [12] (a)), and passes 
into o or u before a consonant. The forms are : — 

bos boves Jupiter (Juppiter) 

bovis bovum, bourn (see [12] (c)) Jovis 

bovi bobus, bubus Jovi 

bovem boves Joveni 

bove bobus, bubus Jove 

The nom. Jupiter (old form Jupater) is a compound of pater. Some- 
times the second part is declined Jupiteris, etc. 

[113] Domus, idvis, manus, tribus, colus, qvinqvatrus, and porticus 
are feminine. 

Acus, arcus, penus, and specus are common. 

[114] The irregularities under (a) have been already mentioned with 
the endings of the various declensions. 

[115] The following are irregular from variation of stem : — 

balneum (st. balneo-) ; pi. usually balneae, etc. (st. balnea). 

caro (st. caron-) ; all other cases from a syncopated stem carn- 

(carnis, carni, etc.). 

domus (st. domu-) ; a stem domo- is found also in all cases except 
the nom., dat., and abl. pi., and is more common in the 
loc. and abl. sg., where the u-stem forms are old. 

epiilum (st. epiilo-) ; pi. epulae, etc. (st. epula-). 



26 



PAET II. — FORMS. 



116 
117 



(e) From yariation of gender. 
(<#) From lack of certain cases. 



st. fame) ; but gen. sg. usually famis (st. fam-). 

st. femor) ; except in nom. and ace. sg., a stem femin- is 

equally common. 
st. iter-) ; except in nom. and ace. sg., a stem itiner- is used. 
st.jugero); pi. jugera, etc. (st.juger-). 
st. jecor-) ; except in nom. and ace. sg., a stem jociner- or 

jocinor- is equally common, 
st. pelagus-) ; only nom. and ace. sg. and nom. and ace. pi. in 
Greek form pelage (contracted from pelagea) ; other cases 
from a stem pelago-. 
st. sangvi-) ; only nom. sg. Other forms from a stem sangvin-. 
st. senec-) ; only nom. sg. Other forms from a stem sen-. 
st. supellect-) ; only nom. sg. Other forms from a stem supel- 

lectili-. 
st. virus-) ; only nom. and ace. sg. Other forms from a stem viro-. 
st. vas-) ; pi. vasa, etc. (st. vaso-). In this noun s does not 

suffer the usual change to r. 
st. vespero-) ; but abl. sg. vespere (st. vesper-). 
st. vulgus-) ; only nom. and ace. sg. All other forms from a 

masc. stem vulgo-, which is found also in nom. and ace. sg. 
st. vi-) ; pi. vires, etc. (st. viri-). 

y adjectives irregular from variation of stem (except senex 
above, which is usually used as a noun) are the adjective compounds of 
caput, which form the nom. sg. from a syncopated stem ; e.g., praeceps 
(st. praecept-) ; but other cases from a stem praeciplt- ; praecipitis, etc. 
[116] Nouns in which variation of stem bas caused variation of gender 
are included in [115]. Aside from such, variation of gender causes irreg- 
ularity of declension in the following : — 

caelum (st. caelo-), neut. ; pi. (found only once), caelos, masc. 
carbasus (st. carbaso-), fern. ; pi. neut. carbasa, etc. 
frenum (st. freno-), neut. ; pi. neut. frena, etc., or masc. freni, etc. 
jocus (st. joco-), masc. ; pi. neut. joca, etc., or masc. joci, etc. 

locus (st. loco-), masc. ; pi. neut. loca, etc., or masc. loci, etc. 

rastrum (st. rastro), neut. ; pi. neut. rastra, etc., or masc. rastri, etc. 

[117] Nouns that lack some of their forms are called defective. There 
are many such in Latin, some of which lack the plural or the singular on 
account of their meaning ; in others, the lack of certain forms seems to be 



fames 
femur 

iter 

jugerum 

jecur 

pelagus 



sangvis 

senex 

supellex 

virus 
vas 

vesper 
vulgus 



vis 



The on 






NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



27 



Numeral Adjectives. 

The cardinal numerals, from one to ten, with 
centum and mille, are primitive words; the others 
are formed from these. Unus, duo, tres, and the 



118 



purely accidental. A few neuters have only the nom. and ace. sg., and 
are called indeclinable. 

It has not seemed necessary to add any list of defective nouns. Such a 
list would be of no practical value to the learner, and would be a very 
large one if it should contain all the nouns, except those all of whose 
forms are found in Latin writers. The lexicon must be consulted for such 
information. 

[118] For the declension of unus, see 71; of duo, [72]. Tres is a 
regular i-stem. Mille is a regular i-stem, but is indeclinable in the singular. 
The hundreds are regular a- and o-stems. All cardinals except unus, of 
course, lack the singular, as do all the distributives. See the list below. 

The combination of units, tens and hundreds to form the intermediate 
numbers is made as in English. 

A list of numeral adjectives is added for reference. The corresponding 
numeral adverbs are also given : — 



Cardixals. 


Ordinals. 


Distributives 


;. 


Numeral Ad vs. 


1 unus, -a, -um, 


) ~ j. 


r singuli, -ae, -a, 

| one by one; 


! 




one ; 


\ primus, -a, -wax, first 


semel, once. 


2 duo, -ae, -o, 


i alter, -a, -um 
) secundus, -a, -um 


( bini, -ae, -a, 

\ tioo by two ; 


! 


bis, twice. 


two ; 


3 tres, tria 


tertius, -a, -um 


terniortrini, etc. 


ter, thrice. 


4 qvattuor 


qvartus, -a, -um 


qvaterni 




qvater, four times. 


o qvinqye 


qvintus, etc. 


qvini 




qvinqviens, etc. 


6 sex 


sextus 


seni 




sexiens 


7 septem 


septimus 


septeni 




septiens 


8 octo 


octavus 


octoni 




octiens 


9 novem 


nonus 


noveni 




noviens 


10 decern 


decimus 


deni 




deciens 


11 undecim 


undecimus 


undeni 




undeciens 


12 duodechn 


duodecimus 


duodeni 




duodeciens 


13 tredecini 


tertius decimus 


terni deni 




terdeciens 


14 qvattuor decini 


qvartus decimus 


qvaterni deni 




qvaterdeciens 


15 qvindecim 


etc. 


etc. 




qvindeciens 


16 sedecim 








etc. 


17 septemdecim 










18 octodecim 










19 novemdecira 











28 



PAKT II. — FORMS. 



hundreds except centum, are declined; also mille, 
when used as a noun. The other cardinals are 
indeclinable. 



Cardinals. 


Ordinals. 


Distributives 


. Numeral Advs. 


20 viginti 


vicensimus 


viceni 


viciens 


21 viginti unus or 


primus et vicensimus or 


viceni singttli 


semel et viciens 


unus et viginti 


unus et vicensimus 






22 viginti duo or 


etc. 


viceni bini 


bis et viciens 


duo et viginti 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 








30 triginta 


tricensimus 


triceni 


triciens 


40 qvadraginta 


qvadragensimus 


qvadrageni 


qvadragiens 


50 qvinqvaginta 


qvinqvagensimus 


qvinqvageni 


qvinqvagiens 


60 sexaginta 


sexagensimus 


sexageni 


sexagiens 


70 septuaginta 


septuagensimus 


septuageni 


septuagiens 


80 octoginta 


octogensimus 


octogeni 


octogiens 


90 nonaginta 


nonagensimus 


nonageni 


nonagiens 


100 centum 


centensimus 


centeni 


centiens 


101 centum et unus 


centensimus primus 


centeni singuli centiens semel 


200 ducenti, -ae, -a 


ducentensimus 


duceni 


ducentiens 


300 trecenti 


trecentensimus 


treceni 


trecentiens 


400 qvadringenti 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


500 qvingenti 








600 sescenti 








700 septingenti 








800 octingenti 








900 nongenti 








1000 mille 








2000 duo millia 








3000 tria millia 








etc. 









For 18, 19, 28, 29, etc., substractwe forms (duodeviginti, undetriginta, 
etc.) are more common than the regular forms. So also, duodevincensi- 
mus, duodeviceni, etc. 

In the later language, the endings -ensimus and -iens drop n and 
become -esimus, -ies. 

The distributives, besides their regular meaning, two by two, in twos, etc., 
are also used with nouns plural in form but singular in meaning. Thus 
castra, forts, is the Latin word for a camp. Bina castra means two 
camps (lit. forts by twos, two sets of forts). They are also used in expressing 
multiplication ; e.g., bis dena viginti sunt, twice ten is twenty. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 29 



Comparison of Adjectives. 

The stem of the comparative degree is formed by 
adding -ios to the theme of the positive. This suffix 
becomes -iiis in the nominative and accusative singu- 
lar neuter; -ior elsewhere. (For the declension of 
the comparative, see [92].) 

The stem of the superlative is formed by adding 
-isslino-, -issima- to the theme of the positive. 

Stems in -er-, -ero-, -eri-, add -riino- to the theme 
for the superlative, and a few in -Hi- add -Hmo-. 

Compounds of -clicus, -ficus, and -vdlus add the 
suffixes of comparison to a theme in -clicent-, -ficent-, 
-volent-. 

Many adjectives are not compared. If a compara- 
tive or superlative of such is needed, it is formed by 
prefixing magis (more); inaxime Qmost). 



119 



120 
121 
122 

123 



[119] Comparison is not inflection, but derivation ; but is placed here 
for convenience. 

[121] These stems, if syncopated in the positive, are also syncopated in 
the comparative, but not in the superlative. Maturus sometimes adds 
-rimo- for the superlative. 

Those which add -llmo are facilis, diflftcilis, similis, dissimilis, 
gracilis, humilis. 

[122] The themes in -nt are participles in formation. 

[123] The following have special irregularities : — 



bonus rnelior optimus 

inalus pejor pessimus 

magnus major maximus 

multus plus (neut.) plurimus 

parvus minor minimus 

senex senior 

juvenis junior 

exterus exterior extrenaus, 
or extinius 



inf erus inferior infimus, imus 

posterus posterioi* postremus, posttimus 

suiierus superior svipremus, summus 

citerior citinius 

interior intimus 

prior primus 

propior proximus 

ulterior ultimas 

vetus veterrimus 

Many adjectives lack the comparative or superlative. The lacking 
superlative of senex is supplied by the phrase maximus natu ; that of 
juvenis by minimus natu. * 



30 PAET II.— FORMS. 



124 



125 



126 



Forms of Pronouns. 

The personal pronouns are ego, tu, sui. They are 
peculiar in declension, partly from variation of stem, 
partly from the retention of older endings lost in the 
ordinary noun-declension. 

They are thus declined : — 

EGO (St. egon-, me-, no-). 
Sg. K ego PL nos 

G. (mei) (nostrum, nostri) 

D. mini, mi nobis 

Ac. me nos 

Ab. me nobis 



TU (St. te-, to-). 


SUI (St. 


se-). 


Sg.X. tu 


PL vos 


Sg. - PL - 


G. (tin) 


(vestrum, vestri) 


(sui) 


(sui) 


D. tib! 


vobis 


sibi 


sib! 


Ac. te 


vos 


se, sese 


se, sese 


Ab. te 


vobis 


se, sese 


se, sese 



The possessive pronouns metis, tutis, sutis, noster, 

vester, are derived from the personal pronouns. 
They are regular a- and o-stem adjectives, except 
that metis forms its vocative singular masculine, mi, 
from an older form mitis. 



[125] Sui is often called the reflexive pronoun, because it refers to the 
subject of the sentence. For a personal pronoun not referring to the sub- 
ject, a demonstrative (is, ille, iste) is used. 

The gen. sg. of ego and tu was mis, tis. These forms were lost, and 
the gen. forms of all the personal pronouns in both numbers are borrowed 
from the possessives. 

The personal pronouns are sometimes emphasized by appending -met, 
-te, or -pte. So also, at times, the possessives : egomet, nosmet, tute, 
suipte, suopte, etc. 

Med, ted, sed, are old forms for me, te, se (ace. and abl.). The 
doubled form sese is common ; tcte for te occurs in old Latin ; also vos- 
trum for vestrum, and sibe or sibei for sibi. 



FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 31 



The demonstrative pronouns have the declension 
of adjectives, but take the pronominal suffix -d in 
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, and 
the pronominal endings -ius, -I, in the genitive and 
dative singular of all genders. Certain cases of some 
of them are regularly emphasized by appending a 
demonstrative or intensive syllable (T, ce or c). 

The demonstratives are is, iste, ille, ipse, hie, 
idem. 

Is (stem i-, usually lengthened to io-, eo-) is thus 
declined : — 

Sg. N. is ea id PL N. ei, ii eae ea 

G. ejus ejus ejus G. eoriim. earum eorum 

D. el ei ei D. eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis 

Ac. eiim earn id Ac. eos eas ea 

Ab. eo ea eo Ab. eis, iis eis, iis eis, iis 



127 



128 
129 



[127] A few instances are found of the regular adj. endings in the gen. 
and dat. sg. i_ 

The forms strengthened by -i are those which end in -a ; viz. : nom. sg. 
fern., and nom. and ace. pi. neut. a + i contracts to ae. This strengthen- 
ing is found in hie ; sometimes in ille and iste. (It occurs also in the 
relative pronoun. See 138.) 

Ce is used to strengthen all the cases, but drops e except after s. It is 
used in hie; sometimes in ille and iste. In the older language various 
forms occur with an appended -ce or -c. 

[128] A demonstrative stem, so-, sa-, is said to have been used by 
Ennius in the forms sum, sam, sas. 

For ille an older spelling, olle, is found in poetry. 

[129] From the stem i- are formed is, id; also the old forms em (or 
im) = eum, and ibus = eis. The rest is formed from the longer stem. 
Ei and eis are sometimes contracted into monosyllables ; eae (dat. sg. fern.) 
and eabus (abl. pi. fern.) are found in Cato, and inscriptions show various 
forms with ei written for i (according to [2]), and the nom. pi. forms 
eis, eeis, ieis. 



32 



PART II.— FORMS. 



130 


Iste (stem isto-) is thus declined : — 






Sg.N. iste ista istttd 


PL isti istae 


ista 




G. istius istius istius 


istorum istariim 


istorum 




D. isti isti isti 


istis istis 


istis 




Ac. istum istam istiid 


istos istas 


ista 




Ab. isto ista isto 


istis istis 


istis 


131 


Ille is declined like iste 






132 


Ipse is declined like iste, but has ipsuni 

nominative and accusative neuter singular. 


l in the 


133 


Hie (stem Iii- or ho-) 


is strengthened by 


both -i 




and -ce, but the latter is 


not usual except in 


certain 




cases. 






134 


The usual forms are : — 








Sg.~N. hie haec hoc 


PL hi hae 


haec 




G. hujiis hujiis hujiis 


horiim hariim 


horiim 




D. huic huic huic 


his his 


his 




Ac. hunc hanc hoc 


hos has 


haec 




Ab. hoc hac hoc 


his his 


his 



[130] A nom. sg. masc. istus is found once. 

[132] For ipse, ipstis is found. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse, 
and a few forms occur in which the first part is declined while the second 
remains unchanged ; viz. : eapse, cumpse, eampse, eopse, eapse. 

[133] The stem hi- is found in hie, and in the old forms hisce (= hi) 
and hibus (= his). Hviic is often monosyllabic (hvic). 

[134] Other forms of hie, chiefly old or poetical, are : — 

Sff. N. liice hoce 

, ( lioiusce lioiusce lioiusce 
( hujusce liujusce liujusce 



T>. lioice 

Ac. 
Ab. 



hoice 
hancc 
liace 



hoice 



N. 


liisce 


haec 


haice 


G. 


( horunce 
1 horunc 


harance 




harunc 




D. 


j hibns 


hibus 


hibus 


| liisce 


hisce 


hisce 


Ac. 


liosce 


hasce 


haice 


Ab. 


( liibus 


hibus 


hibus 


| hisce 


hisce 


hisce 



FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 33 



Ille and iste are sometimes strengthened by -i and 
-ce in the same way as liie. 

Idem is formed by appending -clem to the various 
forms of is. The forms is and id drop -s and -d. 

Idem is thus declined : — 

Sg. N. idem eadem idem PL eidem eaedem eadem 
G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem edrundem earundem eorundem 
D. eidem eidem eidem eisdem eisdem eisdem 
Ac. eundem eandem Idem eosdem easdem eadem 
Ab.e5dem eadem eodem eisdem eisdem eisdem 

The relative pronoun (stem qvi- or qvo-) has the 

strengthening -i. See [127]. It is thus declined : — 

qvod PL qvi qvae qvae 

cujus qvorum qvariim. qvoriim 

cul qvibiis qvlbiis qvlbiis 

qvod qvos qvas qvae 

qv5 qvibus qvibiis qvibiis 

The same pronoun is also used as an interrogative 
pronoun, but when used substantively has qvis, qvid 
in the nominative singular for qvi, qvod. 



Sg. N. qvi 


qvae 


G. cujiis 


cujus 


D. cui 


cui 


Ac. qvem 


qvam 


Ab. qvo 


qva 



135 
136 
137 



138 



139 



[135] The forms thus 


produced are : 


— 










Sg. N". illic 


illaec 


illoc, illuc 


PI 


N. 


illic 


illaec 


iUaec 


Gr. illinsce 


illiusce 


illiusce 




a. 








D. illic 


illic 


illic 




D. 


illisce 


illisce 


iUisce 


Ac. illunc 


illanc 


illoc, illuc 




Ac. 


illosce 


illasce 


illaec 


Ab. illoc 


iliac 


illoc 




Ab 


illisce 


illisce 


illisce 



So also istic, istaec, istoc, etc. 

[138] From the stem qvi- is formed also an abl. sg. qvi, and the old 
nom. pi. qves. From the stem qvo- is formed also a dat. and abl. pi. 
qvis. For cujus, cui, an older spelling, qvojus, qvoi (or qvojei), is 

found. Cui is often monosyllabic (cvi). 

[139] A few cases of qvi, qvod used substantively occur, and qvis, 
qvid, are not rarely used acljectively; qvis and qvem are sometimes 



34 PART II. — FORMS. 



140 



141 



142 
143 

144 



The same pronoun is also used as an indefinite 
pronoun. When so used, it has the same forms as 
when used interrogatively, but usually does not take 
the strengthening -i. 

Various indefinite pronouns compounded of quis 
or qvi occur, all of which have the same declension ; 
but those in which qvis or qvi forms the second part 
usually do not take the strengthening -i. 

Forms of the Verb. 

The Latin verb has the following forms : — 

(a) Three tenses for incomplete action : present, 

imperfect, future. 
(&) Three tenses for completed action : perfect, 
pluperfect, future perfect. 



feminine. Qvinam or qvisnam is a more emphatic interrogative ; it has 
the same forms, with -nam appended. 

From the stem qvo- is formed a possessive interrogative, eujus, a, um 
(= whose). It is antiquated, and only a few forms occur; viz.: cuja, 
cujum, cujam, cuja, cujae. 

[140] Qvi or qvis is indefinite after si, nisi, ne, num, rarely elsewhere. 

[141] A list is added for reference : — 

aliqvi or aliqvis aliqva aliqvod or aliqvid some, any-. 

ecqvi or ecqvis ecqva, ecqvae ecqvod or ecqvid any t 

qvidam qvaedam qvoddam a, a certain. 

qvicunqve qvaecunqve qvodcunqve ivhatever. 

qvilibet qvaelibet qvodlibet which you like, any. 

qvivis qvaevis qvodvis lohich you will, any. 

r. . . ( whichever yoti will, 

bo qviviscunque, etc. ) J 

\ any. 

qvisqvis (once qviqvi). Only a few forms are found. whosoever. 

qvisqvam qvidqvam, qvicqvam any at all. 

qvispiam qvaepiam qvidpiam any. 

qvisqve qvaeqve qvodqve or qvidqve every. 

So unusqvisqve, etc. every single one. 

It should be noticed that ecqvis, being at the same time interrogative 
and indefinite, forms ecqva and ecqvae, without the i and with it, 



FORMS OF THE VERB. 35 



The present tense has three moods : indicative, sub- 
junctive, imperative. 

The imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect have two 
moods : indicative, subjunctive. 

The future and future perfect have one mood : 
indicative. 

These forms are often called, collectively, the 
" finite verbT Beside these, certain derivative noun- 
ancl adjective-forms are usually treated in connection 
with the verb ; viz. : — 

(a) Three verbal nouns called infinitives. 

(V) A verbal noun called the gerund. 

(c) A verbal noun called the supine. 

(c?) Four verbal adjectives called participles. 

Of the finite verb only the incomplete tenses form 
a passive voice. For the passive of the complete 
tenses the Latin, like the English, uses the verb "6<?" 
with a passive participle. 

The passive voice of the incomplete tenses was 
originally reflexive in its formation and meaning, and 



145 
146 
147 

148 



149 
150 
151 
152 

153 



154 



[149] Viz. : a present active infinitive, a present passive infinitive, a 
perfect active infinitive. The infinitives are indeclinable nouns. 

[150] The gerund is a neuter o-stem used only in the oblique cases of 
the singular. 

[151] The supine is a u-stem used only in the ace. and abl. sg. 

[152] Viz. : a present active participle, a present passive participle, a 
future active participle, and a perfect passive participle. The first is an 
i-stem of Class III. ; the others are regular a- and o-stems. 

[154] The name " deponent " was given to these verbs by the old gram- 
marians, because they were supposed to have "laid off" their active form. 
In many of them the reflexive force can be seen ; e.g., fruor, I enjoy 
{myself) ; vescor, I eat {feed myself) ; cingor, / bind on {myself), etc. That 



36 PAET II. — FORMS. 



155 



156 



157 



the reflexive use still remains in some verbs ; e.g., 
vertor, I turn [myself]. Many verbs thus used have 
lost the active form entirely, and use only the pas- 
sive. They are usually translated into English by 
active forms, and are called " deponent " verbs. 

Verb-Stems. 

Verb-stems, like noun-stems, may end in a, e, i, o, u, 
or a consonant. Of stems in -o only a few forms are 
found. 

In most verbs two or three forms of the stem are 
found, — the verb-stem proper (simple stem), a modi- 
fication of it used in the incomplete tenses (present 
stem), and another modification of it used in the 
complete tenses (perfect stem). 

In many verbs the present stem is the same as the 



they are not true passives, is shown by the fact that many of them are 
transitive and govern a direct object. In many of them it is not easy to 
see the reflexive meaning, possibly because the original meaning is not 
known, and they are apparently equivalent to active forms. 

Deponent verbs form the gerund, supine, and participles of the active 
as well as the passive voice, and their passive participles are sometimes 
passive in meaning. In the tenses for completed action, though these are 
not reflexive in formation, the meaning follows that of the incomplete 
tenses, and these forms also are usually rendered into English by the 
active voice. 

[155] Open vowel-stems, as in nouns, differ in certain points from close 
vowel and consonant-stems, but the division is not sufficiently marked to 
make the grouping of any importance. 

The only o-stems are no-sc-o (and its compounds), fo-rem, etc. (imp. 
subj.) and fore (pres. inf.), and a few participles which have become 
adjectives in use. 

[157] The modifications mentioned here, especially nasalizing , are some- 
times by analogy carried also into the perfect-stem or simple-stem forms. 



VERB-STEMS 


37 


simple stem. When not so, it is formed from the 




simple stem, — 




(a) By reduplication. 


158 


(5) By lengthening the stem-vowel. 


159 


(c) By adding or inserting a nasal. 


160 


(d) By adding -sc, -esc, or -isc. 


161 


(e) By adding -a, -e, or -i. 


162 


The perfect stem is rarely like the simple stem. 


163 


Usually it is formed from the simple stem, — 





[158] Reduplication consists in repeating before the stem its initial 
consonant-sound with the following vowel] often with a weakening of the 
latter. Stems ending in a vowel lose the final vowel when reduplicated, 
and become consonant-stems. 

Reduplication is found in the present stem in four cases; viz. : bib-o 
(ba-), gign-o (for gigen-o, gen-), ser-o (for ses-o, sa-), and sist-o (sta-). 
Sisto is peculiar in repeating only the initial s and the vowel (not st). 

[159] E.g., duc-o (due-), dic-o (die-). 

[160] E.g., sin-o (si), pung-o (pug), find-o (fid). 

[161] E.g., ac-esc-o (ac-), no-sc-o (no-), reviv-isc-o (reviv-). When 
sc is added after a consonant, there is usually some obscurity of formation 
from euphonic loss. 

Verbs which form the present stem in this way usually mean to become 
(so and so), to begin to be (so and so). They are often called, therefore, 
inceptive or inchoative verbs. 

[162] A few present stems end in 11, which seems to have arisen from 
li; viz.: cell-o, pell-o, toll-o, also sall-o or salio (to salt). But sali-o 
(to leap) and sepeli-o do not change. 

[163] Possibly all cases of likeness of form between the perfect stem 
and the simple stem are the result of loss. Stems in a close vowel often 
drop the v of the perfect stem ; those in -u show the v only in old Latin. 
Others have lost a reduplication syllable, and possibly the stem-vowel is 
lengthened in others, where the syllable is long by position, and the real 
quantity of the vowel therefore not clear. 



38 PART II. — FORMS. 



164 


(a) By reduplication. 


165 


(5) By lengthening the stem-vowel. 


166 


(<?) By adding -s. 


167 


(t?) By adding -u or -v. 




The " principal parts " of a verb are : — 




f The pres. ind. act., 1st sg. ) . . . . 
L™ . - . \ which show the present stem. 
The pres. mi. act. ) 1 


168 


Active -j r^ e -p eY ^ j n j # ac t. ? 1st sg., which shows the perfect stem. 




[ The supine, which shows the simple stem. 


169 


f The pres. ind. pass., 1st sg.) . . _ _ 
Passive Thepres. inf. pass. | which show the jorn^ stem. 




L The perf . pass, participle, which shows the simple stem. 



[164] In the perfect stem a is regularly weakened to e in the reduplica- 
tion syllable, and to e or i in the stem syllable. Bib-i (ba-) seems to 
owe its form to the present bib-o ; possibly stit-i has been affected in the 
same way by sist-o. 

The stems which begin with two consonants (scid-, sta-, spond-) drop 
the initial s of the stem, after the reduplication syllable (making sci-cid-i, 
ste-t-i, spo-pond-i). For the loss of the final vowel of ba-, da-, and sta- 
in bib-i, ded-i, stet i or stit-i, see [158]. 

The reduplication of the perfect stem is usually dropped when the verb 
is compounded with a preposition. A few stems only retain it. 

[165] E.g. leg-i (leg-) ; pav-i (pav-) . The stem-vowel a becomes e when 
lengthened to form the perfect stem, except when followed by v (viz. : in 
cav-i, fav-i, lav-i, pav-i) or b (in scab-i). Thus, eg-i (ag-), peg-i (pag-), etc. 

[167] U is added after consonants, v after vowels, and the preceding 
vowel is regularly made long before the added -v. 

[168] -E.g., am-o, ama-re, amav-i, ama-tura, passive, am-or, ama-ri, 
aina-tas. These are the forms usually given in grammars and lexicons, 
and are based on a classification of verbs according to the ending of the 
pres. inf. as follows : — 

First conjugation ; inf. endings -are, -arl, = a-stems. 

Second " " " -ere, -erl, = e-stems. 

Third " " " -ere, -i, = cons, u- and short i-stems. 

Fourth " " " -ire, -iri, = long i-stems. 

In most verbs the pres. inf. would be enough to identify the present 
stem, but short i-stems lose the i and become consonant-stems in this form. 
The pres. ind. is therefore added to identify such. 



VERBAL SUFFIXES. 39 



Verbal Suffixes. 

The suffixes of the finite verb contain two ele- 
ments, one of which shows the mood and tense 
(rnood-and-tense sign), the other the person and 
number (person-and-number suffix). 

The rnood-and-tense signs are added to the stem as 
follows : — 

Pres. ind., none; pres. imp., none; pres subj., I in a-stems, 

a elsewhere. 
Imp. ind., eba or eba; imp. subj., ere. 
Fut. ind., eb in open vowel-stems, a and e elsewhere. 
Perf. ind. (es or is? See 188) ; perf. subj., erl 
Plup. ind., era; plup. subj., isse. 
Fut. perf. ind., er. 



170 

171 

172 

173 
174 
175 
176 
177 



[170] The names " tense-and-mood sign," " person-and-number suffix," 
are used for convenience, without implying any theory of their origin, 
simply because they show to the eye or ear the tense and mood, person 
and number, and, incidentally, the voice of the verb. Grammarians are 
agreed that the suffixes of person and number are stunted forms of per- 
sonal pronouns ; and most of the signs of tense and mood are generally 
thought to be derived from the verbs " be " (stems -es, -fu) and "go" 
(stem -I). 

[171] Mood-and-tense signs are added, of course, to the present stem in 
the incomplete tenses, and to the perfect stem in the complete tenses. 

[172] In the pres. subj. I contracts with a preceding a to e. 

[173] The imp. ind. sign is -eba after a consonant or u, and almost 
always after i. eba is used after open vowels, also in old Latin after i, 
but in both eba and eb the initial vowel is always absorbed. (See [178]). 

[174] The fut. ind. sign a is found in the first sg. ; e in the other 
forms. In old Latin, stems in i sometimes form the future with the 
sign eb. 

[175] The perf. subj. sign is often -eri, a result of confusion with the 
fut. perf. ind. which closely resembles it in form and use. 



40 PART XL— FORMS 



178 



179 
180 



By adding the tense-and-mood signs to the stem, 
there is formed a stem or base for each tense. To 
this tense-base are added the suffixes of person and 
number, as follows : — 

Indicative and subjunctive. 

Act. 1. -om 2. -is 3. -it 1. -frntis 2. -itis 3. -wnt 
Pass. 1. -or 2. -eris 3. -ittir 1. -imur 2. -imini 3. -wntur 



[178] The initial short vowel of the mood-and-tense signs is regularly 
absorbed by a preceding open vowel; e.g., ama-bam (= ama-eba-m), 
mone-re-m (= moneere-m), etc. A preceding i either absorbs it, e.g., 
audl-re-m (st. audi-), or drops before it, leaving a consonant-stem, e.g., 
cap-ere-m (st. capi-). The signs eba, eb, ere-, therefore, appear in 
the forms ba, b, re after stems ending in a, e, or i. In the complete 
tenses the stem ends in a, e, or i only when v is dropped. In such cases 
the initial vowel of the sign is regularly absorbed by a or e, very rarely 
by i. See [215]. The long vowels a, e, I are' not absorbed, but i contracts 
with a preceding a to e, as stated in [172]. The loss of e" of the imp. subj. 
sign is a characteristic of certain irregular verbs. (See [220]). 

The suffixes appear in the form given here after vi or a consonant. 
After a, e, i, the initial vowel of the suffix is absorbed, making the preced- 
ing a, e, or i long. But o remains unabsorbed after stem-vowels, and 
itself absorbs the preceding a ; and u remains unabsorbed after the stem- 
vowel i. 

The initial vowel of the person-and-number suffixes, strictly speaking, 
is not a part of them. Its origin is a matter of dispute ; some regard it as 
a simple insertion to attach the suffixes to the tense base (connecting 
vowel) ; others as an addition to the stem to fit it for the reception of the 
suffixes (modal vowel or thematic vowel). Its omission is one peculiarity of 
certain irregular verbs. (See [220]). 

[179] m of -Sva. falls when 6 is unabsorbed. -iim for -dm is found in 
sum. -Minus, an older form of -imus, is found in sum us, qvaesumus, 
volumus. -int for -wnt is found in the fut. perl, evidently by confusion 
with the perf. subj. -is, -tmiis, -itis, due, no doubt, to the same cause, 
are not unusual in the fut. perf. for -is, -fmus, -ttis. 

[180] -e~re for eris is not unusual in poetry ; rare in prose. 



VERBAL SUFFIXES. 41 



Imperative. 

Act. 2. -e, -ito 3. -ito 2. -fte, -ftote 3. -i/nto 

Pass. 2. -ere, -itor 3. -ftor 2. -ftnini 3. -wntor 

The suffixes of the non-finite forms are: — 

(a) From the present stem. 

Act. Pres. inf., -ere ; pres. part., -enti ; gerund, -endo. 
Pass. Pres. inf., -eri; pres. part., -endo. 

(b) From the perfect stem. 

Act. Perf. inf. (-se ? see below, 190). 

(tf) From the simple stem. 

Act. Flit, part., -turo- (-snro-) ; supine, -tu- (-su-). 
Pass. Perf. part., -to- (-so-). 

The perfect indicative active and perfect infinitive 
active have peculiar endings not easily resolved into 
sign and suffix. They are : — 

Perf. act. ind., -I, -isti, -It ; -Irmis, -istis, -erunt. 

Perf. act. inf., -isse. 



181 
182 



183 
184 

185 

186 
187 

188 



189 
190 



[181] The imperative forms in -to, -tote, -nto ; -tor, -ntor are some- 
times called future imperative. They are antiquated forms, retained in 
poetry and legal phraseology, rare elsewhere. 

[183] For -endo, -?mdo is found ; also for -entl, -wnti in one verb (eo, 
"go"). 

[184] For -eri, -I is found in consonant and u-stems. An older suffix 
-erigr (in consonant and u-stems, -ier), is found in old Latin. 

[186] -ituro-, -itu-, -ito-, are found in some cases. This may have been 
the form after vowel-stems, the i disappearing by absorption, -suro, -su, 
-so, are euphonic changes of -turo, -tu, -to, used after certain letters. 
(See [209]). 

[188] The perf. act. ind. and inf. seem to have -is or -es as mood-and- 
tense sign, and to add the suffixes directly to the tense-base without the 
suffix-vowel. But some forms are quite irregular, and the second sg. ind. 
shows a suffix -ti, not found elsewhere in the Latin verb. 

[189] For -erunt, -ere is found, also rarely -erunt. 



PART IT. — FORMS. 





The Conjugations. 


191 


There are five forms of conjugation for the incom- 




plete tenses, according to the form of the stem. 




They are: — 




1st. Stems in -a. 




2d. Stems in -e. 




3d. Stems in a consonant or in -n. 




4th. Stems in short -i. 




5th. Stems in long -I. 




In the complete tenses there is but one form for 




all verbs. 


192 


The theme of the incomplete tenses is found by 




dropping the ending of the present infinitive. 


193 


The incomplete tenses are inflected by adding to 




the theme the following endings : — 



[191] The final u of verb-stems does not contract with the vowel of the 
suffix, and there is therefore no difference between u-stems and consonant- 
stems in their inflection. Compare monosyllabic noun u-stems, 112. These 
different forms of inflection, like the different declensions, are simply 
variations resulting from contraction of stem-ending and suffix-vowel. 
The stems in short -I and long -I are so called for convenience of distinc- 
tion, since the i appears as short in one and long in the other. But it 
seems probable that the final vowel of all verb-stems is properly short, 
and that its length in the incomplete tenses is the result of absorbing the 
suffix-vowel. The usual arrangement of conjugations (see [168]) places 
short I-stems with consonant and u-stems. As in i-stem nouns, the i of 
these verb-steins is lost in certain forms, leaving a consonant-stem. 

Only one form of conjugation is found in the complete tenses, because 
the perfect stem always ends in u or a consonant, and consequently no 
variation of form from contraction takes place. The few cases in which 
the perfect stem is made to end in a, e, or i by the loss of v are too rare 
to make a difference of conjugation. 



THE CONJUGATIONS. 



43 



4-STEMS. 



Sg. 

1 

2 

3 
PL 

1 

2 

3 


Present Active. 


Present Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


O 
as 

at 

amiis 

atis 

ant 


em 

es 
et 

emiis 

etis 

ent 


a, ato 
ato 

ate,atote 
anto 


Inf. 
are 

Part. 
anti- 

Ger. 
ando- 


or 

aris 

atiir 

amur 
amini 
antiir 


er 

eris 

etiir 

emiir 
emini 
entur 


are, ator 
ator 

amini 
antor 


Inf. 
ari 

Part, 
ando- 



Sg. 

1 
2 
3 

PL 
1 
2 
3 


Imperf. Active. 


Imperf. Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


abam 
abas 

abat 

abamus 

abatis 

abant 


arem 

ares 

aret 

aremiis 

aretis 

arent 


abar 

abaris 

abatur 

abamur 
abamini 
abantur 


arer 

areris 

aretur 

aremiir 
aremini 
arentiir 



Fut. Act. 


Put. Pas. 


Indie. 


Indie. 


abo 


abor 


abis 


aberis 


abit 


abitiir 


abimiis 


abimiir 


abitis 


abimini 


abunt 


abuntiir 



194 



195 



EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. 
Stem, ama-; theme, am-. 



[194] Active 



[195] 



Passive 



Passive 



amo 


am em 






am are 


am as 


ames 


ama, am ato 


am ans, -ntis, etc 


am at 


amet 


am ato 


am andi, etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc 






amor 


am er 






am ari 


amarie 


am eris 


am are, 


am ator am andus, a, um 


am atiir 


am,etur 




am ator 


etc. 


etc. 


etc 






am abam 


am arem 






am abo 1 


am abas 


am ares 






am abis 


am abat 


am aret 






am abit 


etc. 


etc. 






etc. 


am abar 


am arer 






am abor 


am abaris 


am areris 






am aberis 


am abatur 


am aretur 






am abitiir 


etc. 


etc. 






etc. 



44 



PART II. — FORMS. 



196 



197 



.E-STEMS. 



S 9 , 

1 

2 
3 

PL 
1 
2 
3 


Present Active. 


Present Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Tmper. 


Non- 
finite. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


eo 
es 
et 

emus 

etis 

ent 


earn 
eas 

eat 

eamiis 

eatis 

eant 


e, eto 
eto 

ete, etdte 
ent§ 


Inf. 
ere 

Part, 
enti- 

Ger. 
endo- 


eor 

eris 
ettir 

emiir 
emini 
entur 


ear 

earis 

eatiir 

eamiir 
eamini 
eantiir 


ere, etor 
etor 

emini 
entor 


Inf. 
eri 

Part, 
endo- 





Imperf. 


Active. 


Imperf. Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Sg. 

1 


ebam 


erem 


ebar 


erer 


2 


ebas 


eres 


ebaris 


ereris 


3 

PL 
1 


ebat 
ebamus 


eret 
eremiis 


ebatiir 
ebamiir 


eretiir 
eremiir 


2 


ebatis 


eretis 


ebamini 


eremini 


3 


ebant 


erent 


ebantur 


erentur 



Put. Act. 


Fut. Pas. 


Indie. 


Indie. 


ebo 


ebor 


ebis 


eberis 


ebit 


ebitur 


ebimiis 


ebimiir 


ebitis 


ebimini 


ebunt 


ebuntur 



EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. 
Stem, mone- ; theme, nion-, 



[196] Active 



Passive 



[197] Active 



Passive 



moneo 
mon es 
monet 

etc. 
mon e5r 
mon eris 
mon etiir 

etc. 

mon ebam 
mon ebas 
mon ebat 

etc. 
mon ebar 
mon ebaris 
moni 

etc. 



mon earn 
mon eas 
mon eat 

etc. 
mon ear 
mon earis 
mon eatiir 

etc. 

mon erem 
mon eres 
mon eret 

etc. 
mon erer 
mon ereris 
mon eretiir 

etc. 



mone, mon eto 
mon etcf 
etc. 

mon erg, mon et5r 
mon etSr 
etc. 



mon ere 

mon ens, -ntls, etc. 
mon endl, etc. 



mon eri 

monendiis, a, um 



mon eb5 
mon ebis 
mon ebit 

etc. 
mon ebftr 
mon eberis 
mon ebltfir 

etc. 



THE CONJUGATIONS. 



45 



CONSONANT-STEMS AND F-STEMS. 



Sff. 

1 

2 

3 

PL 

1 
2 
3 


Present Active. 


Present Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


O 

is 
it 

imiis 

itis 

unt 


am 
as 

at 

amus 

atis 
ant 


e, ito 
it§ 

ite, itote 
unto 


Inf. 
ere 

Part, 
enti- 

Ger. 
endo- 


or 

eris 

itur 

imiir 
imini 
untiir 


ar 

aris 

atur 

amiir 
amini 
antur 


ere, itor 
itor 

imini 
untor 


Inf. 
i 

Part. 
endo- 



Sg. 

1 

2 

3 
PL 

1 

2 

3 


Imperf. Active. 


Iniperf. Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


ebam 

ebas 

ebat 

ebamus 

ebatis 

ebant 


erem 

eres 

eret 

eremus 

eretis 

erent 


ebar 

ebaris 

ebatiir 

ebamiir 
ebamini 
ebantur 


erer 

ereris 

eretiir 

eremur 
eremini 
erentur 



Fut. Act. 


Put. Pas. 


Indie. 


Indie. 


am 


ar 


es 


eris 


et 


etur 


emiis 


emiir 


etis 


emini 


ent 


entur 



198 



199 



[193] Active 



Passive 



[199] Active 



Passive 



rego 
reg is 

etc. 
reg or 
reg eris 

etc. 

reg ebam 
reg ebas 

etc. 
reg ebar 
reg ebaris 

etc. 



EXAMPLE FOR PRACTICE. 
Stem, reg- ; tbeme, reg--. 
reg am 



reg as 

etc. 
regar 
reg aris 

etc. 

reg erem 

reg eres 

etc. 
reg erer 
reg ereris 

etc. 



rege, reg ito 
etc. 



reg ere, reg itor 
etc. 



reg ere 

reg ens, -ntis, etc. 

reg endi, etc. 



regi 

regendiis, a, tim 



reg am 

reg es 

etc. 

reg ar 

reg eris 

etc. 



Stems in -u have the same endings as consonant-stems, the vowel being 
unabsorbed. E.g., from the stem trlbu- we have — 

Active, tribuo, etc. tribuam,etc. tribue,etc. tribu ere, tribu ens, tribu endi. 

Passive, tribu or, etc. tribu ar, etc. tribu ere, etc. tribui, tribuendQs, a, tim. 

Active, tribu ebam, etc. tribu erem, etc. tribu am, etc. 

Passive, tribu ebar, etc. tribu erer, etc. tribu ar, etc. 



40 



PART IL— FORMS. 



200 



201 



202 



There are two forms of inflection of verb-stems in -i. 
In one, i is short and falls before a short syllable, leav- 
ing a consonant-stem; in the other, i absorbs the 
vowel of a following short syllable, and is long. In 
both, i stands before long syllables. 

SHORT J-STEMS. 



Sg. 

1 

2 

3 
PL 

1 

2 

3 


Present Active. 


Present Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 
finite. 


io 
is 
it 

imus 

itis 

iunt 


iam 
ias 

iat 

iamus 

iatis 
iant 


e, ito 
ito 

ite, it5te 
iunto 


Inf. 
ere 

Part, 
ienti- 

Ger. 
iendo- 


ior 

eris 

itur 

imur 
imini 
iuntur 


iar 

iaris 

iatiir 

iamur 
iamini 
iantur 


ere, itor 
itor 

imini 
iuntor 


Inf. 

i 

Part, 
iendo- 





Imperf. Active. 


Imperf. Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Sg. 










1 


iebam 


erem 


iebar 


erer 


2 


iebas 


eres 


iebaris 


ereris 


3 


iebat 


eret 


iebatiir 


eretiir 


PL 










1 


iebamus 


eremus 


iebamiir 


eremiir 


2 


iebatis 


eretis 


iebamini 


eremini 


3 


iebant 


erent 


iebantiir 


erentiir 



Fut. Act. 


Fut. Pas. 


Indie. 


Indie. 


iam 


iar 


ies 


ieris 


iet 


ietur 


iemus 


iemiir 


ietis 


iemini 


ient 


ientur 



[200] The i before the long vowel remains, though the vowel be short- 
ened before final m, t, r, see [12] (a), and falls in the pres. inf. pass, where 
the proper ending -eri has been shortened to -i. 

example FOR practice. Stem, cSpi- or cap- (by dropping i) ; tbeme, cap-. 

[201] 





r cap io 


cap iam 






Active ■ 


J cap Is 


cap ias 


cape, cap Ito 


cap ere 




cap It 


cap iat 


cap Ito 


cap iens, -ntls, etc 




'. etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


capiendl, etc. 




f cap ior 


cap iar 








J cap eris 


cap iaris 


capgre, cap Itor 


cap! 




i cap Itur 


cap iatiir 


cap It5r 


cap iendiis, a, tlm 




l etc. 


etc. 


etc. 





THE CONJUGATIONS. 



47 



LONG T-STEMS. 



Sg. 

1 
2 
3 

PL 
1 
2 
3 


Present Active. 


Present Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


ISTon- 
finite. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Imper. 


Non- 

finite. 


io 
is 
it 

imiis 

itis 

iunt 


iam 

ias 

iat 

iamus 

iatis 

iant 


i, ito 
ito 

ite, itote 
iunto 


Inf. 
ire 

Part, 
ienti- 

Ger. 
iendo- 


ior 
iris 
itur 

imiir 
imini 
iuntur 


iar 

iaris 

iatiir 

iamur 
iamini 
iantur 


ire, itor 
itor 

imini 
iuntor 


Inf. 
iri 

Part, 
iendo- 





Imperf. 


Active. 


Iiiiperf. Passive. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Sg. 

1 


iebam 


irem 


iebar 


irer 


2 


iebas 


ires 


iebaris 


ireris 


3 


iebat 


iret 


iebatur 


iretur 


PL 
1 


iebamiis 


iremiis 


iebamur 


iremiii 


2 


iebatis 


iretis 


iebamini 


iremini 


3 


iebant 


irent 


iebantur 


irentur 



Fut. Act. 


Put. Pas. 


Indie. 


Indie. 


iam 
ies 

iet 

iemus 

ietis 

ient 


iar 

ieris 

ietur 

iemur 
iemini 
ientiir 



203 



204 



( cap iebam caperem 

[202] Active < cap iebas caperes 
( etc. etc. 

( cap iebar caperer 

Passive < cap iebaris capereris 
( etc. etc. 



cap iam 
cap ies 

etc. 
cap iar 
cap ieris 

etc. 



EXAMPLE FOR PEACTICE. Stem, audi- ; tbeme, aud-. 



[203] Active 



Passive 



[204] Active 



Passive 



audio 
aud Is 
audit 

etc. 
aud ior 
aud Iris 
aud itiir 

etc. 

aud iebam 
aud iebas 
aud iebat 

etc. 
aud iebar 
aud iebaris 
aud iebatur 

etc. 



aud iam 
aud ias 
aud iat 

etc. 
aud iar 
aud iaris 
aud iatiir 

etc. 

aud Irem 
aud Ires 
aud Iret 

etc. 
aud Irer 
aud Ireris 
aud iretur 

etc. 



aud 



, aud Ito 
aud Ito 
etc. 



aud Ire, auditor 
aud itor 
etc. 



aud Ire 

audiens, -ntis, etc. 

audiendl, etc. 

aud Iri 
audiendus, a, urn 



aud iam 
aud ies 
aud iet 

etc. 
aud iar 
aud ieris 
aud ietur 

etc. 



48 



PART II. — FORMS. 



205 



206 



207 



The theme of the complete tenses is found by 
dropping the ending of the perfect indicative active, 
first person singular. 

The endings are the same for all verbs 



viz. 





Perfect Active. 


Pluperfect Active. 


Fut.Perf. 
Active. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Non-finite. 


Indie. 


Subj. 


Indie. 


Sg.l 

2 

3 

PL 1 

2 
3 


1 

isti 

it 

imiis 

istis 

erunt 


erim 

eris 

erit 

erimus 

eritis 

erint 


Inf. 
isse 


eram 

eras 

erat 

eramiis 

eratis 

erant 


issem 

isses 

isset 

issemus 

issetis 

issent 


ero 

eris 

erit 

erimus 

eritis 

erint 



The lacking complete tenses of the passive voice 
are supplied, as in English, by the perfect passive 
participle and the verb " be." 



[206] The theme of the complete tenses ends in u or a consonant, and 
the vowel of the endings therefore remains unabsorbed, except when 
brought after a vowel by the loss of v. See [215]. 



EXAMPLES FOR PKACTICE. 



Stem amav- 


amavl 


arnaverim 




amaveram 


amavissem 


amavero 




amavistl 


amavens 


amavisse 


amaveras 


araavisses 


amavens 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


" monu- 


monui 


monuerim 


monuisse 


monueram 


monu issem 


monuero 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


" rex- 


rexi 


rexerim 


rexisse 


rexeram 


rexissem 


rexero ■ 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


" tribu- 


tribui 


tribuerim 


tribuisse 


tribueram 


tribui ssem 


tribuero 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


" cep- 


cepl 


ceperim 


cepisse 


cexjeram 


cepisagm 


cepgro 




etc. 


etc. 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


" audlv- 


audivl 


audiveriin 


audivisse 


audiveram 


audivissem 


audivero 




etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 


etc. 



For the variation between I and I in the perf. subj. and fut. perf. ind. 
see [175] and [179]. 



THE CONJUGATIONS. 



49 



The theme of the verb-forms from the simple stem 
may be found by dropping the ending of the supine 
or of the perfect passive participle. 

The endings of the forms from the simple stem 
are : — 







Future Active 


Perf. Pass. 




Supine. 


Participle. 


Participle. 


A-stems . . . 


atu- 


atiiro- 


ato- 


E-stems . . . 


etu- 


eturo- 


eto- 


I-stems .... 


Itu- 


lturo- 


Ito- 


O-stems . . . 


otu- 


otiiro- 


oto- 


U-stems . . . 


utu- 


uturo- 


uto- 


t 


tu- (su-), 
or Itu- 


turo- (siiro-), 
or Ituro- 


to- (so-), 


Consonant-stems 


or Ito- 



208 



209 



[209] The endings -Itu-, -Ituro-, -ito-, though less common in consonants 
stems, seem to be the usual form of the suffixes in vowel-stems, — the long 
vowel being due to the absorption of the l of the suffix. In a few cases, 
however, vowel-stems show a short vowel in these endings, which may be 
explained by assuming that the suffix is appended directly to the stem 
without the vowel, as in most consonant stems. These cases number in 
all twelve ; viz. : d&tus, r&tus, satus, status ; cltus, Itus, lit us, qvltus, 
situs; -clutus, fttturus, rutus. 

Su-, suro-, so-, are euphonic changes of tu-, turo-, to-. They are 
used after stems ending in a dental-mute (except tend-, which has forms 
with both t and s, apparently by confusion with its kindred stem ten-) 
and after a few others, especially stems ending in two consonants with 
which an added t could not easily be pronounced. See [12] . The real 
form of the stem is often obscured before these suffixes by euphonic 
change. 





ILLUSTRATIONS. 




Stem ama- 


amatum, amatu 


amaturti6, a, tim 


amatus, a, um 


" dele- 


deletum, deletu 


delettirus, a, urn 


deletus, a, um 


" audi- 


auditum, audltu 


audlturus, a, um 


audltus, a, um 


" no- 


notum, notu 


noturus, a, um 


notus, a, um 


" tribu- 


tribntum, tributa 


ti'ibtiturus, a, um 


tributus, a, um 


" cap- 


captum, captu 


capttirus, a, um 


captus, a, um 


" hab- 


habitum, babitu 


bablturus, a, um 


habitus, a, um 


" lud- 


lusum, lusu 


lueurue, a, um 


lusus, a, um 



50 PAET II. — FORMS. 



210 
211 

212 

213 

214 



The participles with the verb "be" are often used 
as in English with the force of finite verb-forms. 

The present -active participle is thus used only 
when it has become an adjective or noun in force 
and meaning. 

The future active participle with the verb "be" 
makes the "first" or "active" periphrastic conjuga- 
tion, and expresses an intended or destined action. 

The present passive participle with the verb " be " 
makes the "second" or "passive" periphrastic con- 
jugation, and expresses duty or necessity. 

The perfect passive participle with the verb " be " 
supplies the lacking complete tenses of the passive 
voice. 



[210] Eor the inflection of the verb "be," see [221]. 
[212] E.g., 

audituriis siim, / am going to hear ; expect to hear ; intend to hear, etc. 
audituriis erain, Iivas going to hear ; expected to hear ; intended to hear, etc. 
This form supplies the lacking subjunctive and infinitive of the future 
tense, when such forms are needed for precision. 

[213] audiendiis sum, / must be heard ; ought to be heard, etc. 

audiendiis eram, / had to be heard ; deserved to be heard, etc. 

[214] Perf. pass. ind. amatus sum Perf. pass. subj. amatus Sim 
" es " sis 

" est " sit 

amati suiuus amati simus 

" estis " sltis 

" sunt " sint 

Plup. pass. ind. amatus gram Plup. pass. subj. amatus essem 
" eras " esses 

erat « esset 

amati eramiis amati essemils 

eratis « essetis 

" erant " essent 

Fut. pf. pass. ind. amatus ero 
" eris 

" erit Perf. pass. inf. amatus ess5 
amati erimiis 
" eritis 
" erunt 



IRREGULAR VERB-FORMS. 51 



Irregular Verb-Forms. 

The v used to form the perfect stem is sometimes 
dropped between vowels. See [12] (<?). 

The ending of the imperative active second singu- 
lar is dropped in the verbs dico, duco, facio, thus 
making die, due, fac. 



215 
216 



Instead of the incomplete tenses of sum the complete tenses are some- 
times used to make the perf., plup. and fut. perf. passive, with little or 
no difference of meaning ; e.g., amatus f ui = amatus sum ; amatus f ueram 
= amatus eram, etc. In all these periphrastic conjugations the participle 
is an adjective limiting the subject of the verb "be," and takes the same 
gender, number and case. See 255. 

[215] An open vowel before v absorbs the following vowel after v falls ; 
a close vowel does so rarely. Thus amavisti becomes amasti ; flevisti 
becomes flesti ; noveram becomes noram, etc. But audiveram be- 
comes audieram, etc. 

A similar shortening in perfects formed with -s is rarer, — scripsti for 
scripsisti ; dixe for dixisse, etc. 

[216] The same loss of the imperative ending takes place also in the 
verbs sum, edo, fero, volo, but is part of a peculiar irregularity. (See 
220.) In old Latin, and in compounds qf facio, the regular forms are 
found. 

Other irregularities are rarer, and belong generally to the older language 
or to poetry. A list is given for reference : — 

(a) In stems in -i the imperf. and fut. ind. are sometimes formed with 
the signs eba and eb ; regularly so in eo, "go." See [227]. 

(b) An old fut. (or fut. perf. ?) formed with the sign -s (or -ss), a subj. 
with the sign -si (or -ssi), and an infin. with the ending -sere (or -ssere), 
are found in old writers. 

(c) An old imper. pass. sg. ending -mino (corresponding to the pi. end- 
ing -mini) is also found, and the active ending -to seems sometimes to 
have a passive sense. 

(d) Eor the suffix -ere = -eris, see [180]. 

(e) Eor the perf. ind. act. ending -ere = erunt, see [189]. 

(/) For the ending -undi, etc., in the gerund, and -undus, -a, -um, in 
the pres. pass, part., see [183]. 



52 PART II. — FORMS. 



217 



218 
219 

220 



221 



Tlie verbs sum, edo, fero, volo, do, eo, queo, fio, 

and their compounds, have special irregularities in 
the incomplete tenses, chiefly in : — 
(a) Variation of the stem. 

(5) Use of mood-and-tense signs unusual in stems 
of like form. 

(<?) Omission of the initial vowel of the mood-and- 
tense sign, or of the suffix. This occurs in sum, 
edo, fero, volo, which omit the initial vowel of the 
imperfect subjunctive sign, and the initial vowel of 
the suffix in the following forms ; viz. : — 

Present indicative, 2d and 3d sg. and 2d plural. 
Present imperative, 2d and 3d sg. and 2d plural. 
Present infinitive. 

Siim (stem es-) omits the vowel, uses I as present 
subjunctive sign, loses initial e in certain forms, 
and retains older endings not found in the usual 
conjugations. 



((/) Audeo, fido, gaudeo, soleo, have a passive form in the complete 
tenses, and are called semi-deponents. 

(h) Morior, orior, potior, show a variation between long I-stem forms 
and short i-stem forms. 

[220] The omission of the e of the imperf. subj. sign -ere causes it to 
take the form -se in sum and edo, and -le in volo. Se was, no doubt, 
the original form ; le arises by assimilation of -r to the preceding -1. The 
same change takes place in the pres. infin. 



[221] 


Siim, 


esse, fui, futurus. 










Present. 




Imperfect. 


Future. 


siim 


siin 






er&in 


essena 


ero 


Ss 


sis 


8s, esto 


esse 


eras 


esses 


eris 


est 


Sit 


esto 




erat 


esset 


erit 


stimfis 


slmvis 




[-sens] 


eramus 


essemus 


erimtis 


estis 


sitis 


estg, estote 




eratis 


essetis 


eritis 


sunt 


sint 


sunto 




erant 


essent 


erunt 



IRREGULAR VERB-FORMS. 



53 



Compounds of siim are like sum, except possum, 
which contracts in certain forms. 

Edo (stem ed-) omits the vowel (with consequent 
euphonic change of d to s), and has present subjunc- 
tive sign I. It has also the regular forms. 



222 



223 



For sim, sis, etc., an older form — siem, sies, etc. — is found. The 
2d sg. pres. hid. es stands for es-s (see [12] (6)), and is long in old Latin es, 
the result of the loss of the suffix. (See 362.) The pres. part, -sens is 
found only in the compounds, ab-sens and prae-sens. 

The complete tenses are formed from a stem fu-, which appears as the 
simple stem also in fu-turus. From this stem is formed a pres. subj. 
fuam, etc. ; arid from another form of it, fo-, is formed an imperf. subj. 
fdrem, etc., and an infin. fore. Fore has a future sense, as have also the 
old inceptive forms escit, escunt (= es-sc-it, es-sc-unt). For perfect stem 
the older language has also fuv-. 



[222J Possum, posse, potui. 
Present. 
possuin possim 

potes possis posse 

potest possit 

possiinius posslmus 

potestis possitis 

possunt possint 



Imperfect. 
poteram possem 
poteras posses 
etc. posset 

etc. 



Future. 
potero 
poteris 
poterit 
poteriroiis 
poteritis 
potervmt 



Possiem, etc., is found for possim, etc. ; also the uncontracted pot- 
essem for possem. Possum is for pot-sum by assimilation of t, which 
appears in its proper form before a vowel. The imperative and the 
participle are wanting. 

Prosum is like sum, but the preposition pro keeps its original form, 
prod, before those forms that begin with a vowel, — pro-sum, prod-es, 
prod-est, pro-sumus, etc. 



[223] Edo, edere, edi, esum. The 


irregular forms are : — 


Present. 


Imp. Subj. 




— edim 


essern 




es edis es, esto 


esses 


Pres. Pass. Ind. 


est etc. esto Infinitive. 


esset 


estur 


— esse 


etc. 




estis este, estote 




Imperf. Pass. Subj. 


_ _ 




essetiir 



Also regular edo, -is, -It, etc., like rego. See [198], 



54 



PART II.— FORMS. 



224 



225 



Fero (stem fer-) omits the vowel, and retains the 
original present passive infinitive suffix -ri, usually 
lost in consonant-stems. 

Volo (stem vol-) omits the vowel, has present sub- 
junctive sign I, and varies the stem to vul, vel, vil. 
Its compounds nolo and malo have the same irregu- 
larities, and suffer contraction in many forms. 



[224] 


Fero, 


ferre, tuli, latum. 








Present. 




Imperfect. 


Future. 


fero 


feram 




Inf. 


ferebam ferrem 


feram 


fers 


feras 


fer, f erto 


ferre 


ferebas ferres 


feres 


fert 


etc. 


ferto 


Part. 


etc. etc. 


etc. 


ferimus 






ferens 






fertis 




ferte, f ertote 


Ger. 






ferunt 


Feror, 


ferunto 
ferrl, latus. 


ferendi 








Present. 




Imperfect. 


Future. 


feror 


ferar 






ferebar ferrer 


ferar 


ferris 


feraris 


ferre, fertor 


Inf. 


ferebaris fereris 


fereris 


fertur 


etc. 


fertor 


ferrl 


etc. etc. 


etc. 


ferimur 






Part. 






ferimini 




ferimini 


ferendus 






feruntur 




feruntor 









For perfect stem fero uses till; for simple stem, la (older tla). Both 
are variations of a stem seen also in tollo. Ferimini (ind. and imper.) 
retains the vowel, but the 2d pi. pass, was originally a participial forma- 
tion, not a finite form. 



[225] 


Volo, velle, volui. 

Present. 




v5lo 


velim 


Inf. 


vis 


veils (vel, used as a 


velle 


vult 


velit conjunction) 


Part. 


voliimus 


vellums 


volens 


vultis 


etc. 


Ger. 


volunt 


Nolo, nolle, nolui. 

Present. 


volendi 


nolo 


nolim 


Inf. 


(nevis) 


noils noli, nollto 


nolle 


(nevult) 


etc. nollto 


Part. 


noliimus 




nolens 


[nevultis] 


nolite, nolitote 


Ger. 


nolunt 


nolunto 


nolendi 



Imperfect. Future. 

volebam vellem volam 
volebas velles voles 

etc. etc. etc. 



Imperfect. Future. 

nolebam nollSm [nolam] 

ndlebas nolles noles 

etc. etc. etc. 



IRREGULAR VERB-FORMS. 55 



Do (stem da-) omits the vowel of the suffix in the 
present tense and the vowel of the mood-and-tense 
sign in the imperfect and future, and consequently 
has short a throughout, where a-stems usually have 
long a. Most of its compounds lose this a, and thus 
become consonant-stems. 

Eo (stem i-) varies the stem to e before a vowel 
(except before e in the present active participle), 



226 



227 



Nevis, nevult, are old. The imperative (except 3d pi.) is 


from a stem 


noli. 




Malo, nialle, malui. 




Present. Imperfect. 


Future. 


malo malim malebani mallem 


[malam] 


mavis inalis Inf. malebas malles 


males 


mavult etc. (Imperative malle etc. etc. 


malet 


maluiniis wanting.) GrER. 


etc. 


mavultis xualendi 




malunt 





Mavolo, mavelim, etc. (uncontracted), are old. The bracketed forms 
are lacking. 

[226] Do, dare, dedi, datum. Its inflection is like that of amo, 
except that the final vowel of the stem is everywhere short. (The forms 
das, da, are lengthened by a general tendency to lengthen certain syl- 
lables. See 360, 361.) Only the form do has the suffix vowel. The 
quantity of the stem-vowel is seen, for example, in damus, dabit, dabitur, 
dabamus, etc. Another form of the same stem, du-, gives a subjunctive 
duam, duas, etc. ; or duim, duis, etc. 

Do remains unchanged in circumdo, pessumdo, satisdo and ve- 
numdo. These are not full compounds, and are often written separately. 
In the future, the original form (e.g., red-dibo, etc.) is sometimes found 
in the consonant-stem compounds. 



[227] Eo, 


Ire, Ivi, ltum. 














Present. 










Imperfect. 


Future 


eo 


earn 








Inf. 




ibS,m Irem 


Ibo 


is 


eas 


1, Ito 






Ire 




lb as Ires 


ibis 


it 


eSt 


Ito 






Part. 




etc. etc. 


etc. 


Imus 


eamus 




iens 


euntis, 


etc. 






Itis 


eat is 


Ite, Itote 






GrER. 








eunt 


eant 


eunto 




iendi, etc 









56 PAET II. — FOKMS. 



229 



230 



231 
232 



233 



and forms the imperfect and future indicative with 
the signs eba and eb, like a- and .e-s terns. 

Qveo (stem qvi-) and its compound neqveo are 
like eo. 

Flo (stem fi-) keeps the vowel e unabsorbed in the 
present infinitive and imperfect subjunctive. In all 
other forms the stem-vowel is long, even before a 
vowel. The present infinitive is passive in form. 



Impersonal and Defective Verbs. 

Impersonal verbs are such as do not take a personal 
subject. They are found only in the third person 
singular, and comprise : — 

(a) Yerbs referring to the state of the weather. 

(5) A few verbs expressing feeling or emotion, the 
object of which denotes the person who experiences 
the feeling. 

(<?) Verbs which take a clause or an infinitive as 
subject. Many of these are also used personally. 





Imperfect. 


Future. 




fiefoslm fiereru 


fiam 




fiebas fieres 


fies 


PIKITIVE. 


etc. etc. 


etc. 


fieri 







[228] Qveo, qvlre, qvivi, qvitum. So neqveo, neqvlre, etc. Only 
a few forms are in use. 

[229] Flo, fieri, [f actus]. 
Present. 
flo fiam 

fis fias fi 

fit etc. 

fimus 

fitis fite 

fiunt 

Flo is passive in meaning, and is used as the passive of facio, which 
supplies the lacking participle and the complete tenses. In old Latin 
fierem, etc., and fieri occur. 

[231] E.g., plait, it rains ; ningit, it snows, etc. 

[232] E.g., pudet me, (it shames me, i.e.) I am ashamed, etc. 

[233] E.g., mini ire licet, (to go is permitted to me) I am -permitted to go, etc. 



IMPERSONAL AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 57 



(cT) Many intransitive verbs, which may be used 
impersonally in the passive. 

Some verbs are defective in Latin. Of these only 
odi and memini need special mention. They lack 
the incomplete tenses, and the complete tenses have 
the time of the incomplete. 



234 
235 



[234] E.g., pugnatur, (it is fought) there is fighting going on; invidetur 
mihi, (it is envied toward me) I am envied ; Itur, (it is gone) people go, etc. 

[235] The forms of the most usual defective verbs are added for 
reference : — 

1. ajo, ais, ait, ajunt. Imperf. ajebam or aibam, etc.; subj. ajas, 
ajat; part, ajens. 

2. Imperat. ave, aveto, avete ; inf. avere. 

3. fatur. Imperat. fare ; fut. fabor, fabitur ; inf. farl; sup. fatu; 
part, fans, fandus, fatus. 

4. inqvam, inqvis, inqvit; inqvimus, inqA^iunt. Imperat. inqve, 
inqvlto, inqvite; imperf. inqviebat; fut. inqvies, inqviet; perf. 
inqvii, inqvisti, inqvit. 

5. memini ; the complete tenses, and an imperat. memento, memen- 
tote. In compounds the. incomplete tenses are found; e.g., re-min-isc-or, 
etc. 

6. odi; only the complete tenses and part, osurus. 

7. Subj. ovet, ovaret; part, ovans, ovatus ; ger. ovandi. 

8. Imperat. salve, salvete; inf. salver e ; fut. salvebis. 

Many verbs lack the forms from the simple stem or those from the 
perfect stem, and some lack both. Impersonal verbs lack all forms except 
the third personal singular ; and intransitive verbs, except in the use men- 
tioned above (234), of course lack the passive voice altogether. Such are 
not usually called defective, however, but the name is limited to those 
given here. 



PART III.— WORD-FORMATION, 



236 



237 



238 



Roots and Stems. 

A root is a simple sound, or combination of 
sounds, used in language to convey an idea without 
modification. 

Roots are sometimes used in Latin as stems, and 
the suffixes of inflection joined to them directly. 
Usually, however, stems are formed from roots by 
vowel -change, or by the addition of a vowel, 
a, e, i, o, u ; sometimes by both. 

Stems formed from roots in either of these three 



[237] Many verbs with consonant-stems, and a few with stems in -a, -e 
or -i, use an unmodified root as a stem. Most verbs with vowel-stems, 
however, use a primitive stem, or, far more often, a derivative stem as the 
verb-stem. The a, e or i added to form the present stem is, of course, no 
part of the verb-stem, but only a modification used in the incomplete 
tenses. The final a, e or i of the present stem belongs to the verb-stem 
only when it shows itself also in the perfect stem and in the simple stem. 

Very few nouns and no adjectives have roots as stems. 

[238] Final vowels of stems (except u sometimes) are dropped before 
suffixes beginning with a vowel, and are often weakened (and sometimes 
dropped) before those that begin with a consonant. Before some of the 
latter, however, the vowel is lengthened, perhaps by the absorption of an 
initial vowel, which generally appears when they are appended to con- 
sonant-stems. Compare the usage in the case of the verb-suffixes, 170-190. 

Initial t of a suffix suffers the euphonic change to s after certain letters, 
as in the supine and participles of the verb. 



FORMATION OF NOUNS. 59 



ways are called primitive stems. From these, deriva- 
tive stems are formed by adding suffixes of derivation. 
Both primitive and derivative stems, by the addition 
of suffixes of inflection, become words of the language, 
fitted for use in sentences. 



Formation of Nouns. 

Nouns are formed from other nouns with a variety 
of suffixes and meanings. 

Nouns formed from adjectives express the quality 
or condition denoted by the adjective. 



239 
240 



[239] The most common suffixes are these : — 

-atu (= Eng. -ship), name of office or condition of the primitive. 
-eto, -ario, name of place where the primitive is found. 
-tut (= Eng. -hood), name of condition or quality of the primitive. 
-io, name of condition or quality of the primitive. 
-lo, -la (= Eng. -let), diminutive nouns. 
-culo, -ciila (= Eng. -let), diminutive nouns. 
Illustrations are : — 

consul-atus, consulship ; from consul, a consul. 

qverc-etum, oak forest ; " qvercus, an oak. 

vir-tus, manhood ; " vir, a man. 

minister-ium, service ; " minister, a servant. 

vicii-lus, hamlet'; " vicus, a village. 

casu-la, cottage ; " casa, a house. 

flos-cultts, floweret ; " flos, a flower. 

securi-cula, hatchet ; " securis, an axe. 

[240] The more usual suffixes are -tat, -tudin, -ia, -tia (= Eng. -ness). 
Illustrations are : — 

superb-ia, pride ; from superbus, proud. 

soli-tudo, loneliness ; " solus, alone. 

boni-tas, goodness ; " bonus, good. 

justi-tia, justice ; " Justus, just. 



(30 



PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. 



241 



242 



Nouns from verbs denote the doer, means, result, 
place, instrument, etc., of the action, or the action 
itself. 

Formation of Adjectives. 

Adjectives formed from nouns are usually "posses- 
sive" adjectives, expressing "possessed of," "full of," 



[241] The most usual suffixes are : — 

-tor (sor), -trie (— Eng. -er, -ster), name of the doer. 

-tu (-su), -tHra (sura), -tion (-sion), -io, -ion, -or, -mm, 
-mento, -ciilo, name of the act, means, result. 

-bulo, -tro, name of the place, means, instrument. 
Illustrations are : — 



audl-tor, hearer ; 
lu-sor, player ; 
al-trix, nourisher ; 
ic-tus, blow ; 
ara-tio, ploughing ; 
effug-ium, escape ; 
suspic-io, suspicion ; 
am-or, love ; 
certa-men, fight ; 
vesti-mentum, clothing ; 
specta-culum, spectacle ; 
sta-buluni, stall; 
ara-trum, plough ; 



from andi-re, to hear. 
lud-ere, to play. 
al-ere, to nourish. 
ic-ere, to strike. 
ara-re, to plough. 
effug-ere, to escape 
suspic-ere, to su 
ama-re, to love. 
certa-re, to fight. 
vesti-re, to clothe. 
specta-re, to view 
sta-re, to stand. 



ara-re, to plough. 

[242] Adjectives thus formed correspond to English derivative adjec- 
tives in -ish, -y, -ed, -ful, -en, etc. The suffixes used to form them are very 
numerous ; the most common are -ato, -do, -no, -ano, -Ino, -ali, -Hi, -ari, 
-ario, -ati, -ensi, -oso, -lento, -co, -io, -eo, -aceo. 

Illustrations are : — 



aur-atus, gilded; 
luctu-osus, sorroivful 
Rom-anus, Roman; 
aur-eus, golden; 
ebur-nus, ivory ; 
mort-alis, mortal ; 
etc. 



from an rum, gold. 
" luctus, sorrow. 
" Roma, Rome. 
" aurum, gold. 
" ebur, ivory. 
" mors, death. 
etc. 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 61 



"furnished with," "made of," "characterized by," 
"belonging to," and the like. 

Adjectives from other adjectives are derivative 
numerals, comparatives and superlatives, and dim- 
inutives. 

Adjectives from verbs are the regular participles, 
adjectives with the force of participles (usually 
active), and adjectives denoting capability (usually 
passive). 

Formation of Verbs. 

A few verbs are formed from noun- or adjective- 
stems by using the theme of the noun as a verb-stem. 



243 



244 



245 



[243] For the ordinal and distributive numerals, with their suffixes, see 
[118] ; and for the comparative and superlative formations, see 119 ff. Dim- 
inutive adjectives have the suffixes -lo and -culo, like diminutive nouns. 
E.g., albiilus, whitish, from albus, ichite. 

forticulus, boldisli, someivhat bold, from fortis, bold. 

[244] For the regular participles and their endings see 183-187. Adjec- 
tives with the general force of participles, but expressing a habit rather 
than a single act, are formed with the suffixes -uo, -Ivo, -tlvo, -do, 
-bundo, -cundo, -aci, etc. Illustrations are : — 

contig-uus, touching, adjacent; from conting-ere, to touch. 

cad-Ivus, falling, fleeting ; " cad-ere, to fall. 

nomina-tivus, nominative ; " nomina-re, to name. 

erra-bundus, ivandering, vagrant ; " erra-re, to wander. 
Adjectives denoting capability are formed with the suffixes -li, -bill, 
-tili (-sili). Illustrations are: — 

frag-ilis, breakable, frail ; from fraiig-ere, to break. 

cred-ibilis, credible; " cred-ere, to believe. 

fer-tilis, fertile, capable of producing; " fer-re, to produce. 

[245] Thus, from flor (theme of flos, a flower) we have flor-ere, to 
flower ; from arbor (theme of arbos, a tree), arbor-esc-ere, to become a 
tree; from dulc (theme of dulcis, sweet), dulc-esc-ere, to grow sweet, etc. 
That the e of the present stem does not belong to the verb-stem, but is a 
formative addition, is shown by the form of the perfect stem, when one exists 
(e.g., flor-ui) . But most of these verbs have only the incomplete tenses. 



62 PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. 



246 



247 



In such verbs the present stem is formed by adding 
-e, or by adding -esc. In the former case the verb 
means "to be [so-and-so] "; in the latter, "to become 
[so-and-so]." 

More often verb-stems are formed from noun- or 
adjective-stems by adding -a or -i to the theme. Verbs 
thus formed usually mean "to make [so-and-so]"; 
less often, "to be [so-and-so]." 

Verbs formed from verbs are frequentatives, in- 
tensives, or desideratives. 



[246] Thus, from bellum, war, bellare, to war ; from aeqvus, level, 
aeqvare, to level; from miles, soldier, militare, to be a soldier; from 
tenuis, thin, tenuare, to make thin; from insanus, mad, insanire, to be 
mad ; from finis, end, finire, to end, etc. 

From stems in u, a-stem verbs are formed by adding a to the stem, not 
the theme ; e.g., aestu-are from aestu-s. But i is added to the theme in 
u-stems, as in others. See [238]. 

[247] Frequentatives denote a frequent or emphatic action. They are 
formed with the suffix -ta. Many verbs formed in this way, however, have 
lost the frequentative force. Illustrations are : — 

adven-tare, to come often ; from adven-ire, to come. 

rog-itare, to ask eagerly ; " rog-are, to ask. 

die-tare, to say frequently ; " dic-ere, to say. 

dict-itare, to say frequently ; " diet-are, to say. 

Intensives denote an eager or earnest action. They are few in number, 
and are formed with the suffix -ess or -essi, the latter being used in the 
complete tenses and simple stem forms. Illustrations are : — 

fac-ess-ere, to do eagerly ; from fac-ere, to do. 

cap-ess-ere, to take eagerly, to seize ; " cap-ere, to take. 
Desideratives denote the desire to do an action. They are few in num- 
ber, and are formed with the suffix -turi (-sfiri). Illustrations are : — 
cena-turire, to wish to dine ; from cena-re, to dine. 

emp-turlre, to wish to buy ; " em-ere, to buy. 

Desideratives seem to be formed from the future active participle by 
the addition of i, as stated in 246, the u being shortened, probably by the 
change of accent. 



FORMATION OF ADVERBS, ETC. 63 



Formation of Adverbs. 

•Many adverbs are case-forms of nouns and adjec- 
tives, often with obsolete endings. The locative, 
accusative and ablative are most frequent. 

Adverbs of manner are formed from adjectives 
and verbs ; adverbs of source from nouns ; numeral 
adverbs from numeral adjectives. 

Formation of Prepositions, Conjunctions, and 
Interjections. 

The interjections proper are primitive sounds, but 
various nouns are used interjectionally in the nom- 
inative, accusative or vocative. So also are curt 
phrases. 

The prepositions and conjunctions are in some 
cases case-forms or phrases, but most of them are 
not easily subjected to grammatical analysis, and may 
conveniently be regarded as primitive words. 



248 



249 



250 



251 



[249] The most usual suffixes for adverbs of manner from adjectives 
are -e and -ter; from verbs, -tim (-sim). Adverbs of source are formed 
from nouns with the suffix -tus. Illustrations are : — 

cert-e, surely ; from certus, sure. 

firmi-ter, firmly ; " firmus, firm. 

cau-tim, cautiously ; " cav-ere, to be cautious. 

fundi-tu s, from the bottom; " fundus, bottom. 

Adverbs of source are formed from adjectives also, and even from pre- 
positions. For the numeral adverbs (ending -iens or -ies) see [118]. 

[251] The manner of formation of prepositions and conjunctions is a 
subject for comparative grammar, and cannot be fully treated in an 
elementary book. 



64 PART III. — WORD-FORMATION. 



252 



Composition. 

Words are also formed by composition, i.e., by 
combining two or more stems into one. The suffixes 
of inflection or derivation are then added to the last 
stem. 



[252] The first stem usually modifies the second with the force of an 
adverb, an adjective, an oblique case, or a direct object ; e.g., — 

in-Iqvus, unfair (in, aequus). 
centi-manus, hundred-handed (centum, inanus). 
capri-cornus, goat-horned (caper, cornu). 
partl-ceps, partaker (pars, capere). 
sangui-suga, bloodsucker, leech (sanguis, sugo). 
etc. etc. 

A few words are often written as compounds, though not really such ; 
e.g., res publica, commonwealth; jus jurandum, oath; legis lator, 

legislator, etc. The custom of writing them as single words has caused 
them to be looked on as compounds, and they are sometimes called 
" spurious compounds." Compare in English instead (i.e. in stead), per- 
chance, perhaps, etc., where two words have grown into one. 



PART IV.— SYNTAX. 



Person, Number, Voice, Concord. 

The modifications of person, number and voice 
have the same force in Latin as in English. Special 
rules are needed only for concord, for the use of 
the cases, tenses and moods, and for the non-finite 
verb-forms. 

The rules of concord are : — 

(a) The appositive or predicate noun agrees in 
case with the noun it limits. 

(b~) The adjective agrees in gender, number and 
case with the noun it limits. 



253 



254 
255 



[253J Except the reflexive use of the passive and the deponent verbs. 
See 154. 

[254] The appositive and predicate noun are usually required by the 
sense to agree in number, and they agree in gender also, when possible. 

Most nouns lack a separate form for the locative and vocative. Such 
nouns, when used as appositives to those cases, are put in other construc- 
tions to express the same idea; with the locative, in the ablative (or 
ablative with a preposition) ; with the vocative, in the nominative. 

[255] An adjective may limit two or more nouns. In this case the 
predicate adjective is generally plural and masculine if the nouns denote 
persons ; neuter, if they denote things. The attributive adjective, limiting 
two or more nouns, generally agrees with the nearest. 

Two or more ordinal numerals may stand in the singular with a plural 
noun; e.g., prima et qvarta legiones, the first and fourth legions. 



66 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



256 
257 



(/) Pronouns agree with their antecedents in gen- 
der, number and person. 

(cT) The finite verb agrees with its subject in 
number and person. 



The participles used to make the " periphrastic " verb-forms sometimes 
agree with an appositive or predicate noun rather than the subject, when 
it denotes the same thing. 

The locative case is limited by no adjectives but possessives (except 
die in old Latin). A nominative used in direct address is in a few cases 
limited by an adjective in the vocative form. Nominatives so used are 
usually called vocatives. See [261]. 

A predicate noun or adjective after an infinitive without an expressed 
subject often agrees not with the omitted subject but with the same word 
expressed in the sentence in some other case ; e.g., cupio esse bonus, 1 
wish to be good ; mihi licet esse bono, / am permitted to be good. (In the 
former of these sentences bonus agrees with ego, expressed in the ending 
of the verb cupio; in the latter, bono agrees with mihi.) Vobis necesse 
est fortibus viris esse, you must be brave men. 

[256] The rule applies, of course, only to substantive pronouns, and 
even these can show person only when they are used as subjects of finite 
verbs, which show by their ending the person of the subject. All adjective 
pronouns agree as adjectives. A few cases occur in poetry of an agreement 
of the relative pronoun in case also (attraction) ; and in a few instances the 
antecedent takes the case of the relative. A pronoun sometimes agrees 
with an appositive or predicate-noun of its antecedent. With more than 
one antecedent, pronouns follow the usage of adjectives in gender and 
number; that of verbs in person. See [255] and [257]. 

[257] With two or more subjects taken conjointly, the verb is plural. 
If the subjects differ in person the verb takes the first person in prefer- 
ence to the second, the second in preference to the third. But in such cases 
the verb often agrees with the nearest subject, especially if it precedes the 
subjects. 

Occasional violations of the rules of agreement are found, the most 
common being an agreement according to sense rather than form. Thus, 
a feminine or neuter collective noun may take a plural adjective or verb 
referring to the implied individuals ; two subjects, taken together, may 
take a singular verb if they express a single idea, etc. 



USE OF THE CASES. 67 



Use of the Cases. 




The Nominative is used — 




(a) As subject of a finite verb. 


258 


(5) In exclamations. 


259 


(c) To denote the person or thing spoken to. 


260 


The Vocative is used — 




(a) To denote the person or thing spoken to. 


261 


The Accusative is used — 




(a) As the direct object of an action. 


262 



[258] The use of the subject-nominative is the same as in English. 

[259] The exclamatory nominative may be considered the subject of a 
verb implied in the connection. It is usually accompanied by the interjec- 
tion en or ecce. en Priamus! Lo, {here is) Priam! En ego, vester 
Ascanius! Lo, (it is) I, your Ascanius ! ecce tuae litterae ! Now your 
letter (comes) ! 

[260] The nominative of direct address is the regular usage in the plural 
number, where no vocative is found, but is rare in the singular, when a 
separate vocative form exists. It is usual to call nominatives vocatives 
when used in this way, if no separate vocative form is found, audi tu, 
populus Aibanus, hear, thou Alban nation, proice tela, sangvis meus, 
cast away thy weapons, my son. 

[261] faciam, Laeli, 7" will do so } Lcelius. The vocative is the simple 
stem without a case-suffix. A vocative form is found in the singular in 
a-stems, masculine o-stems and semivowel-stems. In others the nominative 
is used as a vocative, and is usually called a vocative when so used. An 
adjective limiting such a nominative usually takes the vocative form, if it 
has a separate form for that case, but sometimes the nominative; e.g., 
sangvis meus, above [260]. 

A form macte is called a vocative by some grammarians, an adverb by 
others. It is used as a simple exclamation, or with the imperative forms 
esto, este, as an exclamation of approval, macte ! good ! macte vir- 
tu te esto ! bravo I 

[262] omnem eqvitatum mittit, he sends all the cavalry. 
A special kind of direct object is the cognate accusative, which repeats 
the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun; e.g., vitam tutam vivere, 



PAET IV. — SYNTAX. 



263 
264 



(5) As subject of an infinitive. 
(c) In exclamations. 



to live a safe life; servitutem servire, to slave slavery (i.e., undergo). This 
form of direct object follows verbs which are otherwise intransitive. 

Many verbs are transitive in Latin, while English verbs of like meaning 
are intransitive. In such cases a preposition is inserted in English ; e.g., 
arma cano, / sing of arms ; petit hostem, he aims at the foe, etc. Other 
verbs, properly intransitive, sometimes take a direct object in poetical or 
figurative language ; e.g., ardebat Alexin, he was hot for (i.e., loved) Alexis ; 
redolere antiqvitatem, to smell of antiquity ; saltare Cyclopa, to dance 
the Cyclops; resonant Amaryllida silvae, the groves echo (the name of) 
Amaryllis. Many verbs also are made transitive by being compounded 
with prepositions. 

In a few cases the action implied in a noun or adjective governs a direct 
object. The infinitives, participles and gerund, of course, retaining their 
verbal power, govern the same case as their verbs. 

Factitive verbs (i.e., verbs meaning make, appoint, choose, name, etc.) take 
two objects, as in English, denoting the same person or thing; e.g., popu- 
lus Romanus Ciceronem creavit consulem, the Roman nation chose 
Cicero consul. 

Doceo (and compounds), celo and a few verbs of demanding and ques- 
tioning, sometimes take two direct objects, — one denoting the person, the 
other the thing; e.g., non te celavi sermonein, I have not concealed from 
you the remark ; te hoc rogo, I ask you this ; Caesar Haeduos frumen- 
tum flagitare, Ccesar kept demanding corn from the Hceduans. In the 
passive voice of these verbs the accusative of the person becomes the sub- 
ject, and that of the thing remains. In many cases the accusative of the 
thing seems to be an accusative of specification, or to approach that mean- 
ing, and may be a development from it. See [267]. 

[263] This use is a development of (a), the subject of the infinitive 
being originally the object of the leading verb. It has been extended, 
however, to all uses of the infinitive except the historical infinitive, which 
is a finite verb-form in meaning. See [342]. cum suos interfici viderent, 
when they saw that their 'men were being killed ; necesse est legem haberi, 
it is needful that the law be kept ; fama erat hostem advenire, there was 
a rumor that the foe ivas coming. 

[264J The exclamatory accusative is possibly the object of a verb 
implied in the connection, but in most cases none need be supplied in 
translation. An interjection often accompanies it. heu, me miserum ! 



USE OF THE CASES. 



(c?) To denote the place to which motion proceeds, 
(e) To denote extent of time or space. 
(/) With verbs or adjectives to define their appli- 
cation. 

(</) With many prepositions. 



265 
266 
267 

268 



Alas, unhappy me ! hanc audaciam, the impudence ! In old Latin the 
accusatives eum, earn, ilium, 111am, etc., are combined with the preceding 
en or ecce to eccum, eccam, eccillam, etc. 

[265] Accusative of limit. This use is limited, in prose, to names of 
towns and small islands, and domum, domos, foras, rus. Hennam 
profecti sunt, they went to Henna ; ego rus ibo, / shall go to the country. 
Other words require a preposition, except a few phrases with eo, " to go," 
or do, " to give," in which the freer use of early Latin is retained ; e.g., 
pessum ire, to go to ruin ; pessum dare, [to send to ruin, i.e.] to ruin ; 
infitias ire, exseqvias ire, venum ire, venum dare. Here belongs also 
the use of the accusative case of the supine. See 351. 

[266] Accusative of extent, paucos dies moratus, having waited a 
few days; millia passuum tria ab eorum castris castra ponit, he 

pitches a camp three miles from their camp. Extent of time or space is some- 
times expressed by the ablative. See 302. 

[267] Accusative of specif cation. This use is rare in prose, the ablative 
being the usual construction. The accusative is found, however, in neuter 
pronouns; id, qvid, etc., in nihil ; in neuter adjectives, pauca, multum, 
etc. ; and in a few idiomatic phrases. It is usually best translated by an 
adverb or an adverbial phrase ; e.g., quid ? why ? maximam partem, 
chief y ; id temporis, then ; istuc aetatis, at your age, etc. In the phrases 
id genus, of that sort ; virile secus, of the male sex, and the like, this 
accusative seems to qualify a noun, and is nearly equal in force to a geni- 
tive or ablative of description. Under this head come many so-called 
adverbs, multum, plus, minus, etc. 

With cingor, I bind on {myself), and other passive forms used reflexively, 
an accusative is found, which is usually referred to this head. It is better 
treated, however, as direct object, since the verb is not properly passive. 
In poetical language many passive participles retain a direct object which 
may be explained in the same way. 

[268] The accusative and ablative cases follow prepositions in Latin. A 
list of those that take the ablative is given in 308 ; all others take the accusa- 
tive. Prepositions compounded with verbs sometimes retain their power of 



70 PAET IV. — SYNTAX. 



269 



The Dative is used — 

O) As indirect object of an action or feeling 



governing an accusative. If the verb is transitive, it will then take two 
accusatives, — one a direct object, the other governed by the preposition. 
This use is rare, except with trans, populos adit, he goes to (i.e., visits) 
the tribes; milites flumen transportabat, he was taking his troops over the 
river. 

Pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; and the phrase ante 
diem, used in dates, are followed by an accusative, like prepositions. The 
construction seems to be elliptical. 

The adjectives propior, proximus, and the corresponding adverbs 
propius, proxime, are followed by an accusative like their positive prope, 
which is both adverb and preposition. (Compare the similar prepositional 
use of nearer, nearest, in English.) 

[269] The dative of indirect object denotes the person or thing to or for 
which, or for whose advantage anything is done or exists. Various prepositions 
are used to express the idea in English, to and for most often. Sometimes 
the English indirect objective will render it. Himilconi respondit, he 
answered Himilco ; mihi licet adire, lam allowed to come near (it is allowed 
to me) ; hostibus terrorem augere, to increase the fright of the enemy (in- 
crease fright for) ; pugnare hostibus, to fight with (or against) the foe. 

Sometimes, in poetry, the dative of the indirect object is found with 
verbs of motion, where a phrase expressing the place to which would be used 
in prose ; e.g., it clamor caelo, the outcry goes to the sky. This use arises 
from a poetical notion or conception, the rising of the shout being thought 
of not simply as going to the sky, but as affecting or having influenced 
the sky. So occasionally other verbs, the action being conceived of as 
done to the person or thing, though another construction would be used 
in prose; e.g., lateri abdidit ensem, buried the sword in his side. So 
especially verbs meaning " take away." 

Many verbs are intransitive in Latin, though verbs of like meaning are 
transitive in English, and the indirect object with such becomes a direct 
object in translation. The most common are verbs meaning help, please, 
trust, serve, and the contrary ; also spare, pardon, envy, command, persuade, 
and the like. If pains is taken to translate them by intransitive expres- 
sions, the dative will be seen to have its proper force, non Herculi 
nocere voluit, she did not wish to do harm to Hercules (= injure), mundus 
deo paret, the world is subject to (obeys) a god. Transitive verbs with the 
meanings given above govern an accusative, but may take a dative also, if 



USE OF THE CASES. 71 



(6) To denote the possessor or apparent agent. 
(<?) With adjectives, to denote that to which the 
quality or feeling is directed. 
(d) To denote purpose or end. 



270 
271 

272 



the meaning permits ; and most of these verbs may take an accusative of 
the thing, especially a neuter pronoun, along with the dative of the person. 
Hoc tibi impero, I give you this command {command this to you). In the 
case of some of these verbs, usage is unsettled, and they take either a direct 
or an indirect object, with little or no difference of meaning. 

The same remarks apply also to many verbs compounded with the 
prepositions ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, 
which take a dative, and if transitive an accusative also. 

[270] The dative of possessor is simply an indirect object, denoting the 
person for whom, or for whose advantage or disadvantage something exists. 
It needs mention only on account of peculiarity of translation. Gallis 
haec consuetudo est, the Gaids have this custom (lit., this custom exists for the 
Gauls). The same is true of the dative of apparent agent, so named because 
translated " by." It is found regularly with the present passive participle 
(rarely with the perfect passive participle or a verbal adjective in -bilis), 
and denotes the person who has the work to do. multa mini facienda 
sunt, much must be done by me, I have much to do (lit., the doing-of-much exists 
for me). In poetry we sometimes find a dative of the real agent, or one 
which approaches that meaning. 

[271] The dative ivith adjectives is also an indirect object, and denotes 
that toward which the implied feeling is exercised, or for which the implied 
quality exists. The adjectives most often limited by a dative are those 
kindred in meaning to the verbs that govern a dative, and those which 
mean like, ready, friendly, easy, fit, etc. paucis carior fides quam 
pecunia fuit, to a few, truth was dearer than money ; hoc luctuosum est 
parentibus, this is sad for parents, idem, same, sometimes takes a dative 
(like adjectives of likeness). 

In a few cases, a noun or adverb, derived from a verb or adjective which 
governs a dative, takes an indirect object like its primitive, conveni- 
enter naturae, in agreement with nature. Also, rarely, a dative is found 
with interjections, vae victis! woe to the vanquished ! vae mihi! ah me! 

[272] The dative of purpose is most frequent with the verb " be." It is 
translated as a predicate-noun or an appositive with "as," less often by 
"for." impedimento id fuit, this was a hindrance (served as a hindrance) ; 



72 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



273 
274 



The Looatiye is used — 

(a) To denote the place of an action. 
(5) To denote price or value. 



virtus non datur dono, virtue is not given as a present; eqvitatum 
Caesari auxilio miserant, they had sent cavalry as a help to Cozsar. A 
second dative of the person to whom the action is of interest is often added, 
as in the last example. This use of the dative to express purpose is not 
common, except in the case of a few words. A few have become equivalent 
to adjectives, — frugi bonae = honest, usui = useful, cordi = pleasing, etc. 
In operae est, it is worth while, it is not clear whether operae is dative or 
genitive, operae pretium est also occurs, and the shorter expression 
may be derived from the latter. 

On the border between the dative of indirect object and the dative of 
purpose stands its occurrence to denote the use to which a thing is put; 
e.g., domicilio locum delegerunt, they chose a place for a home; receptui 
signum, the " retreat-call," signal for retreat; esui olivae, eating-olives, etc. 
This use of the dative is most common with the gerundive, in giving the 
duties of an officer or committee, and similar expressions ; e.g., decemviri 
legibus scribendis, a committee of ten to compile the laws. In such cases it 
seems to limit a noun, but the construction is probably elliptical. 

[273] A separate form for the locative is found in Latin only in the 
singular of some names of towns and islands, and a few other words, domi, 
humi, ruri being the most frequent. (In other words, and in the plural, 
the ablative or a preposition is used to express "place where.") cogitan- 
dum tibi erat Romaene et domi tuae, an Mitylenis aut Rhodi 
malles vivere, you had to consider whether you preferred to live at Rome 
and at your own home, or at Mitylence or Rhodes. A locative animi occurs 
with verbs and adjectives of feeling ; e.g., aeger animi, sick at heart. 

In old Latin a locative die is found denoting the " time when " ; e.g., 
qvinti die, on the fifth day ; die crastini, to-morrow, etc. 

Several adverbs of place or time are locatives; e.g., hie, here; illic, 
there; postridie (= posteri die), on the following day ; pridie, on the day 
before ; qvotidie, daily, etc. 

In the case of plural names of towns, it is a matter of indifference 
whether the case used to denote place be called ablative or locative. The 
form is the same, and the use of the singular shows that either case may 
be used in this sense. 

[274] A definite amount named as the price is expressed by the ablative. 
The locative is found in indefinite expressions of price or value; e.g., 



USE OF THE CASES. 73 



The genitive was originally the ease of' the source 
or (consequently) the cause. This idea can be seen 
in some of its uses ; in others the idea of possession, 
developed from that of source, is more prominent. 
The Genitive is used (as the case of source or cause) — 

(a) To denote the crime 

1. With verbs of judicial action. 

2. With adjectives of guilt or innocence. 

(5) To denote the person or thing that excites the 
feeling 

1. With some verbs of reminding, remembering, 

forgetting, pitying. 

2. With miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taeclet. 

3. With adjectives of like meaning. 



275 



276 
277 
278 
279 

280 

281 
282 



magni aestimare, to value highly ; flocci non faciunt, they don't care a 

straw for ; est mihi tanti, it is worth my while; aeqvi boni facere, 

to take in good part, etc. In homo nihili, a ivorthless fellow, and the like, 
the locative seems to limit a noun, but the expression is perhaps elliptical. 

The locative was not clear to the Romans themselves, and its similarity 
of form caused it to be confused, in the singular, with the genitive, and in 
a few cases genuine genitives were used with the force of locatives. Thus, 
pluris and ininoris occur a few times to express value ; a few other geni- 
tives occur once each, mentis, in mind, is found twice ; it seems to have 
been formed after the analogy of animi. 

[277] i.e., verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, etc. ambitus 
accusare, to accuse of bribery. 

[278] insons culpae, innocent of fault ; reus avaritiae, charged with 
avarice. 

[280] admonebat eum egestatis, he reminded him of his poverty; 
veteris proverbii memini, i" remember an old saio. 

[281] eum libidinis infamiaeqve neqve pudet neqve taedet, he is 
neither ashamed of his licentiousness and ill-repute nor sick of them. "With 
pudet the person toward whom the sense of shame is felt is occasionally 
treated as the exciting object. 

One or two other verbs of like meaning occasionally occur with a geni- 
tive, — vereor, to feel awe; fastidio, to feel disgust. 

[282] gloriae memor, mindful of glory ; lassus militiae, sick of warfare. 



74 


PART IV. — SYNTAX. 


283 


(<?) To denote the whole, of which the word it 




limits denotes a part. 


284 


(t?) To describe anything by denoting its qualities 




or its material. 



[283] Partitive genitive. It may limit nouns, adjectives or adverbs, if 
they express a part, pars militum, part of the soldiers ; ubinam geni- 
tum sumus ? ivhere in the world are we? (in what place among nations'?) 
omnium fluminum maximum, the largest of all rivers ; genus eorum 
unum, one class of them. Here belongs the genitive in various idiomatic 
phrases; e.g., id temporis, at that [point of~\ time ; qvid novi? what news? 
id loci, that spot, etc. As partitive genitives the personal pronoun forms 
nostrum, vestrum are used, not nostri, vestri. ejus is a partitive geni- 
tive in the phrase qvod ejus, = " as far as" (lit. whatever of it), qvod 
ejus possis, as far as you can. In older Latin, and in colloquial style, we 
find phrases like scelus viri, a villain ; qvid hominis ? what sort of a 
fellow ? monstrum hominis, a monster, etc., which come under the head 
of partitives, as do also the phrases compendi facere, to save ; lucri 
facere, to gain, and the like. 

[284] Descriptive genitive, res magni laboris, a task of great toil (very 
toilsome) ; murus pedum sedecim, a sixteen foot wall. This genitive, when 
denoting a quality of the word it limits, regularly has an adjective with it, 
as in the examples given, (bidui, tridui, etc., have an adjective com- 
pounded with them.) 

The descriptive genitive, when used to denote material, does not require 
a limiting adjective. This use is rare (an adjective is generally used to 
denote material), and in many cases seems to approach the idea of a 
partitive genitive. Examples are : acervus frumenti, a heap of grain ; 
talentum auri, a talent of gold. 

Other constructions occur instead of the genitive in all its uses to express* 
source or cause. Thus, verbs of accusing, etc., verbs of reminding, etc., 
sometimes take a phrase with a preposition ; verbs of remembering, etc., a 
direct object ; miseret, etc., an infinitive ; the various adjectives, also, arc 
used with prepositional phrases instead of the genitive. The poets and 
later writers use the genitive more freely with adjectives to express cause; 
sometimes also to express specification, where an ablative or locative might 
be expected. 

For a partitive genitive a phrase with a preposition is not unusual, 
oftenest with de or ex. 



USE OF THE CASES. 75 



The Genitive is used (as a possessive case) — 




(a) To denote the possessor. 


285 


(5) To define a noun more closely. 


286 


(c) To denote the subject of the implied action or 


287 


feeling. 




(cT) To denote the object of the implied action or 


288 


feeling. 





The idea of source passes into that of separation, and in a few cases a 
genitive is found in poetry, where an ablative of separation would be the 
usual construction. Probably the habit of imitating Greek constructions 
(common in the Augustan poets) is the cause of this use. 

[285] Possessive genitive, membra hominis, a man's limbs; natura 
deorum, the nature of the gods. Used with any noun denoting a thing 
capable of possession in the widest sense ; also with adjectives used sub- 
stantively; e.g., aeqvalis ejus, his equal in age; similis Caesaris, like 
Ccesar (Caesar's like), etc. This genitive is often put in the predicate, and 
mark, duty, or some such word supplied in translation ; e.g., est hominis, 
'tis a man's duty ; hominis est errare, it is characteristic of man to make 
mistakes. 

The genitive case of the personal pronouns is not used, in prose, as a 
possessive. The possessive-pronouns are used instead. 

A possessive genitive is found with ergo, instar, terms, pridie and 
postridie, which were originally nouns, but have sunk to prepositions or 
adverbs. 

[286] Appositive genitive. urbs Romae, (Rome's city, i.e.) Rome; 
urbs Buthroti, the city of Ruthrotum. This is properly a possessive geni- 
tive. It is rarely found, an appositive being far more usual. 

[287] Subjective genitive, deorum factum, a deed of the gods. The 
word it limits must imply, of course, an action or feeling. In some cases 
it is hard to draw the line between the subjective and the possessive use 
of the genitive, and the possessive pronouns are used for it as for a posses- 
sive genitive. 

[288] Objective genitive. usus membrorum, the use of the limbs; 
cura rerum alienarum, the care of others' interests. The objective geni- 
tive limits nouns and adjectives that imply an action or feeling which may 
pass over to an object, amans sui, fond of himself ; capax urbis mag- 



76 PART IV.— SYNTAX. 



289 
290 

291 



The genitive is used, further — 
(a) To denote price or penalty. 
(5) With a few verbs and adjectives of plenty and 

want. 
(<?) With interest and refert. 



nae, capable-of-holding a large city. As objective genitives, mei, tui, sui, 
nostri, vestri are used (nostrum, vestrum very rarely). 

A phrase with a preposition (in, erga, etc.) may be used instead of the 
objective genitive. This use of the genitive, like that of the subjective 
genitive, is a development of the idea of possession, the action or feeling, 
whether done to one or by one, being thought of as something belonging 
to him. 

[289] The genitive of price has been mentioned [274] . The genitive 
of penalty is found in capitis damnare, to condemn to death, and similar 
expressions. It seems to have arisen from confusion with the genitive of 
the crime, but possibly there may be an ellipsis of the word on which 
the genitive depends, the expression having been originally a legal phrase. 
Penalty is usually expressed by the ablative. 

[290] With verbs and adjectives of filling, fullness, the genitive seems 
to come under the head of source or cause ; but an ablative of means is 
more common. With other expressions the genitive is not common, except 
in the poets and later writers, who seem, in many cases, to use it in imita- 
tion of the Greek, to express not only want or lack, but often also separa- 
tion or specification, ideas which are regularly expressed by the ablative. 
The verb potior, also, which usually takes an ablative, is found with a 
genitive, domus erat plena ebriorum, the house was full of drunken men; 
temeritatis implere, to fill with rashness ; exercitationis indiget, needs 
practice. 

[291] nullius interest, it makes no difference to any one; illorum 
refert, it concerns them. In this construction, the possessive pronoun forms 
mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra are used, instead of the genitive of a 
personal pronoun. The origin of this genitive is not clear, but refert is 
commonly thought to stand for rem fert ; in which case the genitive is 
possessive, and mea, tua, etc., stand for meam, tuam, etc. The genitive 
and possessive pronoun with interest may be explained as having arisen 
from the analogy of refert, which has the same meaning, and naturally 
takes the same construction. 



USE OF THE CASES. 77 



The ablative in Latin has taken on itself the func- 
tions of four different cases, the meaning and force 
of which are rudely given by the four prepositions 
most often used to translate it, —from, by, in, with. 

1. FROM — The Ablative Proper. 

The Ablative Proper is used — 

(a) To denote the place from which motion 

proceeds. 
(5) To denote separation, source and origin. 



292 



293 
294 



[292] The classification here given of the uses of the ablative is not 
meant to be absolute or scientific. The various uses shade into one 
another, and a sharp line of division is, in many cases, impossible. In 
doubtful cases, the clue offered by other constructions has been generally 
followed, thus cause, though often passing insensibly into means, has been 
put under "ablative proper" rather than "instrumental," because of the 
frequent use of a, de or ex to express cause ; price, though in many cases 
" instrumental," has been put under " locative " because of the locative of 
price, etc. But analogy fails in many cases, — the name of a town used in 
dating letters is found not only in the ablative, but also in the locative and 
in the ablative with a. Should the ablative when so used be regarded as 
"place where" or "place from which" ? Some of these doubtful cases are 
mentioned in the notes ; if the teacher should choose to transfer any usage 
from one head to another, no harm will come of it, as the sole object of 
the classification is to render it easier to learn and keep in mind the 
various uses. 

[293] This use is generally limited in prose to names of towns and small 
islands, and donio, liumo, rure. (Other words usually take a preposition.) 
Corintho f ugit, fled from Corinth ; rure hue advenit, came hither from 
the country, 

[294] hostem rapinis prohibere, to keep the foe from plunder ; Jove 
natus et L-atona, born of Jove and Latona; satus terra, sprung from earth. 
(A preposition is often used, however, to express separation or source.) 

Under this head belongs the use of the ablative with verbs and adjec- 
tives denoting icant and lack; e.g., vacuus cura, free from care; isto 
nomine caruit, it lacked that name. (The genitive is also thus used; 
see 290.) 



78 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



295 


(e) To denote cause. 


296 


(d) To denote the standard of comparison. 




2. BY — The Instrumental Ablative. 




The Instrumental Ablative is used — 


297 


(a) To denote the means or instrument. 



[295] The ablative of cause is used with a great variety of expressions, 
and rendered into English by various prepositions, animi vitio id 
evenit, that came about from a fault of character. So with gaudere, to re- 
joice (in); niti, to depend (on) ; confidere, to trust (to); contentus, 
satisfied (with); laetus, glad (of); etc. 

[296] This ablative is translated " than." nihil est viro dignius aeqvi- 
tate, nothing is more worthy of a man than justice. "Than" is also expressed 
by qvam, and the usage of Latin speech is roughly the following : — 

(a) When the standard of comparison is a relative pronoun, the abla- 
tive is used. 

(b) When the standard of comparison is subject, or an attribute of the 
subject, either the ablative or qvam may be used. 

(c) When two adjectives are compared, qvam is used, and both adjec- 
tives take the same degree, magis disertus qvam sapiens, more learned 
than ivise ; verior qvam gratior, more true than, popular. 

(d) With adverbs the ablative is often used loosely in indefinite com- 
parisons ; e.g., dicto citius, sooner than said. So spe, opinione, justo, etc. 

(e) In expressions of size, number, iveight, etc., after the adverbs plus, 
minus, amplius, longius, either the ablative or qvam may be used. But 
qvam is often omitted in such constructions, and the word denoting the 
standard of comparison left in the same case as if qvam were expressed ; 
e.g., plus tria millia, more than three thousand. 

(f) In cases not included in the above qvam is used in prose, but the 
ablative is more freely used in poetry. So too with alius, other (than). 

On the border between the ablative proper and the instrumental ablative 
stands its use to denote the material of which a thing consists ; e.g., auinio 
constamus et corpore, we are made up of soul and bodij. 

Here, too, may be placed the use of the ablative with facio, fio and 
sum in the peculiar idioms, qvid facias . . . ? what can you do with . . . ? 
and qvid fiet . . . ? what will become of ... ? e.g., qvid hoc homine faci- 
atis? what could you do with this fellow? 

[297] Ablative of means, lacte et carne vivunt pellibusqve sunt 



USE OF THE CASES. 79 



(5) To denote the amount of difference. 


298 


3. IN — The ILocative Ablative. 




The Locative Ablative is used — 




(a) To denote the place where an action takes place. 


299 



vestiti, they live on milk and flesh and are clothed icith skins ; eum corona 
donasti, you presented him with a crown. 

fruor, fungor, potior, utor, vescor are limited by an ablative of 
means, which is usually translated as a direct object, lacte, caseo, 
carne vescor, / eat milk, cheese, flesh (i.e., feed myself with) ; Crassus 
aedilitate functus est, Crassus held (busied himself ivith) the aidileship. In 
regard to the reflexive use of these deponents, see 154. (In old Latin they 
sometimes take a direct object, and' a remnant of their transitive meaning 
is seen in their present passive participles, which are used with esse to 
make the " second periphrastic conjugation," like those of other transitive 
verbs, potior also takes a genitive; see [290].) 

The ablative of means is used also with opus and usus ; e.g., opus est 
pecunia, (there is a work [to be done'] with money, i.e.) there is need of money. 
In this construction, instead of a noun denoting action we sometimes find 
the perfect passive participle, or the ablative of the supine ; e.g., opus est 
properato, there is need of haste ; opus est factu, there is need of action. 

The ablative may denote the road or route by which one goes. Aurelia 
via profectus est, he iventby the Aurelian way ; flumine adverso, up the 
river; recto litore, straight along the shore; etc. This use may be con- 
sidered either instrumental or locative, as the road is looked on as a means 
of travel or a place of travel. 

[298J Ablative of degree, paulo longius processit, he went on a little 
farther ; decern annis ante Punicum bellum, ten years before the Punic 
war. So with abesse, distare, etc., to express distance ; e.g., qvinqve 
milibus ab urbe distat, is five miles from the city ; a litore tridui navi- 
gatione, three days' sail from the coast. 

qvo . . . eo and qvanto . . . tanto occur often in correlative clauses, 
and are translated by the . . . the. qvo difficilius, eo praeclarius, the 
more difficult, the more glorious. 

[299] Ablative of place. This use is generally limited in prose to names 
of towns and islands, words which mean "place" (loco, locis, parte, etc.), 
words limited by totus or medius, and a few phrases. (Other words 
usually take a preposition. Eor the locative of "place where" see 273.) 
Tamesis uno omnino loco transiri potest, the Thames can be crossed in 



80 PAET IV. — SYNTAX. 



300 


(6) To define the application of the word it limits. 


301 


(<?) To denote the time when or within which an 




action takes place. 


302 


(d) To denote extent of time or space. 


303 


(e) To denote price or penalty. 




4. WITH — The Comitative Ablative. 




The Comitative Ablative is used — 


304 


(a) To denote accompaniment. 



one place only ; totis trepidatur castris, there is a panic in the whole camp. 
So Carthagine Nova, at New Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles ; terra 
mariqve, by land and sea ; dextra, on the right, etc. In the case of plural 
names of towns, it is indifferent whether the case be called ablative or 
locative. 

[300] Ablative of specification. Translated in, in respect to, in point of , 
etc. temporibus errasti, you were mistaken in the date; grandis natu, 
advanced in life ; rex nomine, non potentia, Icing in name, not in power. 
Here belongs the ordinary use of the supine in the ablative ; e.g., mirabile 
dictu, strange to tell ; possibly also the ablative with dignus and indig- 
nus; e.g., indignus est vita, he is unworthy of life. But see [303]. 

[301] Ablative of time, tertia vigilia solvit, he set sail in the third watch ; 
solis occasu, at sunset ; decern diebus proximis, within the next ten days. 
Some expressions of time contain at the same time a suggestion also of 
cause, means or specification ; e.g., bello civili periit, he lost his life in 
the civil war ; duobus his proeliis, in these two battles, etc. 

[302] Ablative of extent, pugnatum est horis qvinqve, the fight lasted 
five hours. An accusative is more often used to express extent of time or 
space. See 266. 

[303] Ablative of price, vendidit hie auro patriam, this man sold his 
country for gold. Ablative of penalty, tertia parte agri damnati, fined 
a third part of their land; morte damnatus, condemned to death. With 
verbs of exchanging either what is given or what is received may be 
treated as the price. With some verbs the ablative of price seems to be 
instrumental rather than locative. Price is also expressed by the locative, 
and penalty by the genitive. See 274 and 289. 

An ablative is used with the adjectives dignus and indignus, and with 
the verb dignor, which seems to come under the head of price, but is not 
quite clear. See [300]. haud me tali dignor honore, / do not think 
myself worthy of such honor. 



USE OF THE CASES. 81 



(5) To describe anything by expressing its quali- 
ties or appearance. 
(c) To denote manner or attendant circumstances. 

The ablative is used, further — 
(a) As the case absolute. 



305 
306 

307 



[304] Ablative of accompaniment. This use is limited in prose to military 
expressions, giving the troops or forces with which a movement is made. 
Caesar subseqvebatur omnibus copiis, Ccesar followed with all his troops. 
In other expressions the preposition cum is used. 

[305] Ablative of description. In this use the ablative, like the descrip- 
tive genitive, requires a limiting adjective or a limiting genitive, pari 
acclivitate collis, a hill of equal steepness; ore rubicundo homo, a red- 
faced fellow. It is often best rendered by a compound adjective, as in the 
last example. 

[306] The ablative of manner is generally limited in prose to words 
meaning "manner" (modo, ratione, etc.), and words which have a limiting 
adjective, aeqvo animo mori, to die with resignation [an even mind) ; id 
summo studio a militibus administratis, this is performed by the 
soldiers with the greatest zeal. Other words take regularly the preposition 
cum, except a few like injuria, unjustly, silentio, silently, which have 
become equivalent to adverbs in their use ; and those which contain also 
the idea of cause or means; e.g., nox cantu aut clamore acta, the night 
was spent in singing and shouting; pedibus proeliari, to fight on foot ; 
versibus scribere, to write in verse, etc. 

The ablative of attendant circumstances lies between the ablative of 
manner and the ablative absolute (which often expresses manner or circum- 
stance), and cannot be separated by any distinct line from those uses. In 
foro summa hominum frequentia exscribo, / am writing in the forum 
xvith a great crowd (around me). So in various phrases : injussu Caesaris, 
without Ccesar' s orders; pace tua, by your leave; tuo periculo, at your 
own risk, etc. Here seem to belong two or three cases of the gerundive 
(see 349), which are often regarded as ablative absolute, nullis officii 
praeceptis tradendis, without giving rules of duty ; accusandis Camillus 
dis hominibusqve senescebat, Camillus grew old accusing gods and men. 

[307] The ablative absolute may be referred to either division of the 
case, according to the modification it expresses. It denotes most often 
time, cause, means, manner, concession or an accompanying event, and should 



82 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



308 



(5) With . the prepositions a (ab, albs), absqve, de, 
coram, palam, cum, ex (e), sine, ten ns, pro 
and prae ; and sometimes with in, sub, subter, 
super. 



be translated accordingly, usually by a modifying clause, but in the last 
case often by an independent clause, the proper connective (and, but, etc.) 
being supplied. Germani, post tergum clamore audito, armis objec- 
tis, se ex castris ejecerunt, the Germans, when they heard the outcry in 
their rear, threw away their arms and burst out of the camp. (Here clamore 
audito denotes time, and armis objectis an accompanying circumstance). 
nostri omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, our men were all safe, 
though a few were wounded (concession) ; multis telis dejectis, defensores 
depellebant, they drove off the defenders by throwing many missiles (means). 

The ablative absolute consists regularly of a noun and a participle, the 
former being subject, the latter predicate of the implied statement. For 
predicate, however, a predicate-noun or adjective is often used, the lacking 
participle of the verb sum being supplied in translation. Rarely a clause 
or an infinitive is used as subject of the participle. 

The ablative absolute is far more common than the English nominative 
absolute, to which it corresponds. Only seldom can the latter be used to 
translate it ; the best rendering is usually by a modifying clause. The lack 
of a perfect active participle in Latin makes the construction far more 
frequent than it would otherwise be, and an English participial construc- 
tion is often a good translation, if the voice of the Latin verb be changed ; 
e.g., Caesar, obsidibus acceptis, exercitum in Bellovacos duxit, 
Ccesar, having received hostages, led his army, etc. ; convocato consilio, 
eos incusavit, calling a council, he upbraided them. 

A few cases occur of the ablative absolute joined to the sentence it 
limits by a conjunction: nisi munitis castris, (unless after the camp had 
been fortified) unless the camp had been (first) fortified ; qvasi praeda sibi 
advecta, as if booty had been brought to him ; tanqvam non transituris 
in Asiam Romanis, as if the Romans were not going to cross into Asia. 

In a few cases the participle stands alone as an ablative absolute, its 
subject being omitted. This corresponds to the impersonal use of a finite 
verb-form, nihil festinato, nihil pracparato, without haste, and without 
preparation ; diu certato, after a long fight (lit. it having been fought long), 
like diu certatum est, (it ivas fought long) there ivas a long fight. 

[308] The ablative with prepositions may be assigned to the divisions 
of the case as follows : — 



USE OF THE TENSES. 



Use of the Tenses. 

The use of the tenses is, in general, the same as 
in English* 

The perfect indicative, in its use, is either definite 
or indefinite. The perfect definite corresponds to 



309 
310 



Ablative proper : a, absqve, de, ex, sine. 

Locative ablative : coram, palam, tenus, pro, prae, in, sub, subter, 
super. 

Comitative ablative : cum. 

In and sub take tbe ablative with expressions implying rest, the accusa- 
tive with expressions implying motion. Subter and super usually take the 
accusative; rarely the ablative, except super when it means "concerning." 

A few words, commonly adverbs, are sometimes found with the ablative 
like prepositions ; such are procul, simul, clam. 

[309] The present indicative is often used, as in English, for a past 
tense (imperfect or perfect indefinite). In this use it is called "historical 
present." After the conjunction dum, "while," the present is often used 
in the same way, though a past tense is necessary in English. 

With adverbs meaning "long" (jam, diu, etc.), the present and imper- 
fect, though they have their proper force, are usually rendered into English 
by the perfect and pluperfect, jamdiu machinaris, you have long been 
plotting (and are plotting yet) ; divi comparabam, I had long been preparing 
(and teas still doing so). 

The imperfect denotes a past action or state as continuing, repeated or 
customary, sometimes as attempted, dicebat, "he said," "he was saying," 
"he used to say," or even "he tried to say" 

The future indicative is sometimes used, as in English, to express a 
command. Compare [815]. For the lacking future and future perfect 
subjunctive, the present and perfect subjunctive are commonly used; but 
when it is necessary to avoid ambiguity, the subjunctive of the first peri- 
phrastic conjugation may be used. 

In letters, the imperfect and pluperfect tenses are sometimes found 
where the English would use the present and perfect ; the time of the 
receipt of the letter, not the time of writing, being reckoned from. 

Poets sometimes use the perfect indefinite, in imitation of Greek, to 
state a general truth. , 

[310] The perfect subjunctive is usually definite, except when it stands 
for an indefinite perfect indicative which has been changed to the subjunc- 
tive in a dependent statement, by 322. 



84 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



311 



312 



313 
314 



the English "present perfect"; e.g., amavi, I have 
loved. The perfect indefinite corresponds to the 
English "past"; e.g., amavi, 1 loved. 

The present, perfect definite, future and future 
perfect are primary tenses; the imperfect, perfect 
indefinite and pluperfect, secondary. 

In most subordinate clauses the subjunctive takes 
a primary tense (present or perfect) when the verb 
on which it depends is primary, and a secondary 
tense (imperfect or pluperfect) when the verb on 
which it depends is secondary. This usage is called 
sequence of tenses. 

Use of the Moods. 

The Indicative is used — 

(«) To make a statement directly. 
(5) To ask a question directly. 



[311] The English "perfect with have" is usually the equivalent of 
the definite perfect, hut rarely our idiom requires " have " as a translation 
of the indefinite perfect. 

The historical present is sometimes secondary, following meaning rather 
than form. 

[312] The rule of sequence is not a principle of grammar, hut simply 
the statement of a somewhat unsettled usage. It is subject to violation 
whenever the sense requires ; but this rarely happens, except in consecu- 
tive clauses, and conditions impliedly false. See 326 and 327. 

[313] The use of the indicative is the same as in English. 

[314] Questions answered by "yes" or "no" are not marked, as in 
English, by the order of the words, but by the interrogative particles -ne 
and num. -ne is appended to the prominent word of the sentence (usually 
the first word), and simply shows that the sentence is a question, sen- 
tisne? do you perceive? Rarely -ne is omitted. 

The insertion of a negative word shows, as in English, that the answer 
"yes" is expected. In such a case, -ne is appended to the negative word. 
nonne sentis ? do you not perceive ? 



USE OF THE MOODS. 85 



The Imperative is used — 

(a) To give a command directly. 
The Subjunctive is used (in independent sentences) ■ 

(a) To make a statement doubtfully. 

(b) To ask a question doubtfully. 



315 

316 
317 



mini shows that the answer "no" is expected, num sentis? you don't 
perceive, do you ? 

Double (or alternative) questions take utrum, num or -ne in the first 
clause, and an or -ne in the second. 

Exclamatory sentences are questions in form, are introduced by the 
same interrogative words, and take the same construction. 

[315] The use of the imperative is the same as in English, but a pro- 
hibition is seldom expressed by the simple imperative. Instead of it we 
find (a) ne with the perfect subjunctive, (b) noli (plural nolite) Avith an 
infinitive, (c) cave (plural cavete) with the present subjunctive. "Do not 
speak " would be ne dixeris, noli dicere, or cave dicas ; seldom in 
prose, ne die. 

Rarely a future indicative is used in a command, expectabis, you 
will wait. 

The imperative forms in -to, -tote, -nto, -tor, -ntor (often called 
future imperative), are old forms, usually found only in legal language 
(in laws, wills, etc.), and in poetry. 

[316] Potential subjunctive. It corresponds to the English potential, 
and should be translated by may, might, could, would, should, etc., according 
to the sense of the passage, velim, I should wish ; vellem, I could wish ; 
crederes, you would think; nemo istud concedat, no one would admit that. 
Doubtful statements are most common with a conditional clause to limit 
them, and usually take the same form as the verb of the condition. Some- 
times they are used where a conditional or concessive clause would have 
the same force. 

The potential subjunctive may be used in dependent as well as inde- 
pendent sentences, where the indicative would make a positive statement, 
while the writer desires a doubtful one. This is especially the case in 
relative sentences, which, though dependent in form, are often practically 
equivalent to independent statements. 

[317] There are two forms of questions in which the subjunctive is 
found. The first is simply the potential subjunctive of 316, when the state- 
ment is changed into a question ; e.g., crederesne? would you think ? The 



86 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



318 


(e) To give a command doubtfully : — 


319 


1. In exhortations. 


320 


2. In wishes. 


321 


3. In requests or mild commands. 



other use is the dubitative subjunctive. It is found in doubtful or rhetori- 
cal questions ; i.e., such as do not require an answer, but imply in them- 
selves a negative answer, qvid faciam? what can I do ? qvid facerem? 
what was I to do? qvis dubitet ? who doubts ? qvis vellet ? who could 
wish? The implied answer in all these is "nothing," "no one." So qvies- 
cerem et paterer ? was I to keep quiet and suffer ? [No.] The subjunctive 
in such questions is really potential, but in English the indicative is often 
used, or the mood-verb can, while the subjunctive of 316 is more often 
rendered by may, might or would. 

[319] Hortatory subjunctive. Used in the first person plural; e.g., 
moriamur ! let us die ! in arma ruamus ! let us rush into the fight ! 

[320] Optative subjunctive, tibi di qvaecumqve precaris dent, 
may the gods give you all the blessings you pray for ; moriar, ni puto, 
may I die, if I don't believe . . .! A particle of wishing (O, uti, utinam, 
etc.) often accompanies this use of the subjunctive. (O si is used in the 
same way, but is a conditional clause.) The secondary tenses imply that 
the wish cannot be realized, and sometimes approach the notion of a past 
obligation, utinam viveret, would that he were alive ! ne poposcisses, 
you ought not to have ashed (lit., would that you had not asked). 

[321] Jussive subjunctive. Common in the third person, where the im- 
perative is seldom used, but rare in prose in the second person, except in 
prohibitions (see [315]), and when the subject is indefinite (you = any one). 
relinqvas, leave (= one may leave), hoc amet, hoc spernat, let him 
choose this and reject that. 

This subjunctive, beside the uses given, often occurs where other con- 
structions are common in Latin, viz : 

With modo or tantum, " only " as the equivalent of a condition. 
With ut, ne, qvamvis, etc., "however much," as the equivalent of a 
concessive clause. 
E.g., multa in eo admiranda sunt, eligere modo curae sit, there is 
much in him that is admirable, if one only takes pains in choosing (lit., only let 
it be your care to choose) ; velis tantummodo, if only you ivish ; qvamvis 
prudens sis, tamen . . . , though you be wise, yet . . . (lit., be as wise as you 
will, qvam vis). At times, this subjunctive is so used without the adverbs 
mentioned; e.g., roges, you may ask (i.e., if you ask, or though you ask). 



USE OF THE MOODS. 87 



The Subjunctive is used (as the indirect mood) — 
(a) In the subordinate clauses of dependent state- 
ments. 
(5) In dependent questions. 



322 
323 



[322] The subjunctive of 322, 323, and 324, is a substitute for the 
indicative and imperative of 313, 314, and 315, when direct statements, 
questions or commands are reported and made to depend on verbs of say- 
ing or thinking, asking or answering, commanding or forbidding. 

Direct statements, when made dependent on verbs of saying or thinking, 
change the indicative of the principal clauses to the infinitive ; that of the 
subordinate clauses to the subjunctive. 

The potential subjunctive, in principal clauses, becomes the infinitive of 
the active periphrastic conjugation. 

Occasionally subordinate clauses, especially relative clauses, take the 
infinitive, being equivalent to principal clauses in their meaning. A few 
cases occur of the use of the infinitive by a sort of attraction, even in con- 
ditional clauses and the like. 

The same principle often causes the subjunctive to be used in relative 
and. other subordinate clauses, that do not depend on verbs of saying or 
thinking, but limit a sentence whose verb implies the thought or statement 
of another person. Paetus libros, qvos frater suus reliqvisset, mihi 
donavlt, Paetus gave me the books which his brother (as he said) had left. 
Sometimes, by a careless construction, the verb of saying is inserted, and 
put in the subjunctive instead of the verb of the sentence, which in this 
case depends on the inserted verb, literas, qvas me misisse diceret, 
recitavit, he read a letter which he said I had toritten. Causal clauses also 
take the subjunctive on this principle, when the cause is given not on the 
authority of the speaker or writer, but of some other person, and show the 
same irregular insertion of dico. Compare [328]. 

Subordinate clauses remain in the indicative, when they form no part of 
the reported statements, but are inserted by the narrator as explanations. 
Occasionally, also, though very rarely in good writers, other subordinate 
clauses are found in the indicative. 

[323] Direct questions, when made dependent on a verb of asking or 
answering, change their verbs to the subjunctive, qvis est ? who is he ? 
(direct) ; nescio qvis sit, I know not who he is (indirect) ; qvanto res sit 
in periculo, cognoscunt, they learn in how great danger the matter is. 

In old Latin dependent questions are often in the indicative. 

In long passages of a formal, reported speech, dependent questions are 



PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



324 
325 



(c) In dependent commands. 
The Subjunctive is used (in dependent sentences) — 
(a) In final clauses, and in substantive clauses de- 
veloped from them. 



sometimes in the infinitive. In such -cases, the question is usually equiva- 
lent to a statement, and not asked for the sake of an answer. See 470, 477. 
With haud scio an, nescio an, / know not whether, the verb often 
remains in the indicative, these phrases having become practically equiva- 
lent in force to adverbs, "perhaps," "probably." 

[324] Direct commands, when made dependent on verbs of commanding 
or forbidding, change their verbs to the subjunctive, patribus nnntia 
urbem muniant, tell the senate to fortify the city ; jures postnlo, / re- 
quire you to swear ; Ariovistus respondit, cum vellet, congrederetur, 

Ariovistus answered [telling him), to meet him when he pleased. In many 
cases, however, ut or ne is inserted before the verb, thus making a pur- 
pose clause (see 325); and after jubeo and veto, less often after other 
verbs, the verb is changed to the infinitive, becoming an object. See 338. 

[325] Final clauses denote purpose. In Latin they are relative clauses, 
and are introduced by relative pronouns or by relative adverbs, legatos 
miserunt qvi dicerent, they sent envoys to say . . . (lit. ivho should say). 

Ut, how, is the most common to introduce a purpose clause. Ne is the 
negative of ut, and is used like a conjunction to introduce the purpose 
clause, ut being very rarely expressed before it. ut iter faceret Gena- 
"bum proficiscitur, he sets out to go to Genabus ; postulavit ne qvem 
peditem Caesar adduceret, he demanded that Ccesar should bring along no 
foot-soldier ; veni ut te hortarem, / came to encourage you. 

Qvo is generally used instead of ut Avhen the purpose clause contains a 
comparative, qvo minus (often written as one word) is the negative of 
qvo, and is found after verbs of hindering, refusing, etc. qvo fiat facilius, 
that it may be done the more easily ; me deterret hiems qvominus earn, 
the storm prevents me from going. 

Qvi (an old abl. = qvo) is common in the older language. qvin 
(— qvi ne) is the negative of qvi. It is often difficult to decide whether 
clauses with qvin and qvominus should be put under the head of purpose 
or result clauses. See [326]. 

Ut is often omitted after verbs of willingness and permission, and after 
die and fac; seldom elsewhere, fac sis, see that you be . . . ; die veniat, 
tell him to come ; volo facias, I wish you to do . . . ; licet eas, you may go 



USE OF THE MOODS. 89 



(7>) In consecutive clauses, and in substantive 
clauses developed from them. 



326 



(lit., it is allowed that you go), licet with a following subjunctive often 
expresses a concession. licet laudem fortunam, tamen . . . , 1 may 
•praise fortune, yet . . . (= though I praise, yet . . .). ne is omitted after 
cave, cavete. cave ignoscas, do not pardon (compare [315] (c)). In 
many cases it is possible that these subjunctives might be classed as 
dependent commands ; the verbs they depend on nearly all express consent 
or command. 

The purpose clauses, ut ita dicam, "so to speak "; ne longum sit, "to 
be brief," and the like, are used parenthetically, as in English. The same 
is the case with nedum, " much less." sumptus sufferre neqveo, nedum 
possis, / cannot stand the expense, much less can you. 

Purpose clauses easily pass into substantive clauses, and are often used 
in Latin where subject or object clauses are used in English, especially 
after verbs denoting an exercise of the will ; e.g., wishing, permitting , com- 
manding, etc. After verbs of fearing this difference of idiom compels us 
to translate ne by "that," and ut by "that not." tiineo ne veniat, I fear 
that he will come ; tiineo ut veniat, I fear that he will not come. 

[326] Consecutive clauses express a result. They are relative clauses 
in Latin, and are introduced by a relative pronoun, or by the relative 
adverbs ut or qvin. tantus fuit terror ut Volusenus fldem non 
faceret, so great was the panic that Volusenus was not believed, qvin, " but 
that," is used after general negatives and after verbs of hindering, doubting, 
etc. ; e.g., non est dubium qvin, there is no doubt that .... 

Result clauses introduced by a relative pronoun express a characteristic, 
or a result of the nature or character of the antecedent; e.g., non sum 
ille ferreus qvi non movear, / am not so callous as not to be moved. They 
are most common after indefinite antecedents ; e.g., sunt qvi, there are 
(some) who; qvis est qvi, who is there that . . . , etc. ; after unus and solus ; 
and after general negatives nemo, nullus, nihil. In such clauses, qvin 
may be used for the nominative (rarely accusative) of the relative pronoun 
and a negative ; eg., nemo est qvin putet, there is no one who does not think. 

Relative clauses of result may follow the adjectives dignus, indignus, 
idoneus, aptus. dignus est qvi laudetur, he is worthy to be praised. 
Here also belong the restrictive clause qvod sciam, as far as I know, and 
others like it. 

Consecutive clauses, like final clauses, are very frequent in Latin where 
the English uses subject or object clauses, and it is often difficult to draw 



90 PAKT IV.— SYNTAX. 



327 
328 



(<?) In conditions impliedly false. 
The Subjunctive may be used, further 
(a) In causal clauses. 



the line between purpose and result. Clauses with qvin, in particular, 
often seem to be final rather than consecutive, and it is often a matter of 
indifference to which use such object-clauses should be referred. 

Consecutive clauses easily pass into subject or object-clauses, and occur 
with a great variety of verbs. As subject they are found with verbs mean- 
ing "it happens," "it remains," etc.; as object they are most common with 
verbs meaning "accomplish," "bring it about"; facio, efflcio, etc. In a few 
cases they pass into appositive clauses. 

[327] Conditions impliedly false take the secondary tenses, — the im- 
perfect for present time, the pluperfect for past time, si tu hie esses, 
if you were in my place (but you are not) ; si adfuissem, if I had been there 
(but I was not). Conditional clauses are introduced by si, if, and its com- 
pounds, or by a relative pronoun or adverb. Sometimes the conjunction 
si is omitted, as in English ; e.g., fecisses, had you done (= if you had done). 

The primary tenses of the subjunctive are often used in conditions 
though the supposed case may be false, because the speaker or writer 
chooses to represent it as possible ; e.g., tu si hie sis, aliter sentias, if 
you were I, you would feel differently (more strictly, if you should be in my 
case, implying that such a thing is possible). Such are really future con- 
ditions in form, and come under 331. 

Conjunctions meaning "as if" (ac si, qvasi, qvamsi, tanqvam si, 
ut si, velut si, ceu, also tanqvam and velut when si is omitted) are used 
with an ellipsis of the verb on which the condition depends, ac si scrip- 
sisses, as (would be the case) if you had written; velut haud ulla mora 
futura esset, as if there were to be no delay. Here too the primary tenses 
are often used, though the connection shows that the supposed case is 
untrue ; e.g., tanqvam si claudus sim, as if I were lame (i.e., as would be 
the case if I should be lame) ; jacent tanqvam sine animo sint, they lie as 
if they icere dead (i.e., as they would lie, if it should turn out that they are 
dead, essent would imply that the speaker thinks that they are not dead). 

[328] Causal clauses after a relative pronoun or cum take the subjunc- 
tive regularly, except in old Latin ; after qvoniam, usually. After other 
causal conjunctions the indicative is used if the speaker or writer gives the 
cause on his own authority, the subjunctive if he gives it as the allegation 
of some one else, qvae cum ita sint, since this is so ; Panaetius laudat 
Africanum qvod fuerit ahstineus, Panostius praises Africanus because he 



USE OF THE MOODS. 91 



(6) In concessive clauses. 
(e) In temporal clauses. 



329 
330 



was (as Panaitius says) temperate. (Here PanEetius is made responsible for 
the statement that Africanus was temperate ; qvod f uit would make the 
statement the writer's.) The relative pronoun introducing a causal clause 
is often preceded by ut, utpote, qvippe, and the verb of the clause is 
sometimes, though rarely, in the indicative. 

[329] Concessive clauses after cum are regularly in the subjunctive ; 
after qvamqvam, in the indicative. Of the other conjunctions translated 
"though," the compounds of si (ac si, etsi, etc., also tanqvam, velut, 
sicut, where si is omitted) introduce conditional clauses, and have the 
same construction ; qvamvis, ut and ne take the subjunctive of doubtful 
command (see [321]); licet is a verb, and is followed by a final sub- 
junctive with ut omitted (see [325]). 

[330] Temporal clauses referring to past time usually take the indica- 
tive, except after cum, which takes the subjunctive of the secondary 
tenses ; and, in later writers, after anteqvam and priusqvam. 

Temporal clauses, however, in many cases express some other modifica- 
tion of the thought than simple time, and are therefore followed by the 
subjunctive. Thus : — 

dum, dum modo take the subjunctive when they mean not simply 
"as long as," but "if," "provided." oderint dum metuant, let them hate 
as long as they fear (i.e., if they fear) . 

dum, donee, quoad take the subjunctive when they imply purpose. 
manebo, dum veniat, / shall wait for him to come (until he comes). 

ante qvam and prius qvam take the subjunctive of purpose, the 
clause expressing the act whose occurrence is to be prevented or antici- 
pated, or, less often, a simple purpose, or something expected and counted 
on. sic omne [opus] prius est perfectum qvam intellegeretur afo 
Afranio castra muniri, thus the whole work was finished before Afranius 
knew that the camp was being fortified (i.e., the work ivas done secretly, that 
Afranius might not know before it was done); anteqvam pronuntient, 
vocem sensim excitant, they excite the voice gradually, before they declaim 
(i.e., with the purpose or expectation of afterwards declaiming). 

The subjunctive is used in the same way with expressions that mean 
"sooner than," "rather than," — e.g., potius qvam, citius qvam, libentius 
qvam, — though the idea of time has disappeared, depugna, potius 
qvam servias, fight it out rather than be a slave (i.e., in order not to be a 
slave). But ut is sometimes inserted after qvam in such clauses. 



92 PAET IV. — SYNTAX. 



331 
332 
333 



334 



(<i) In future conditions. 

(g) In general conditions. 

(/) In clauses dependent on a subjunctive. 

Use of the Non-Finite Verb-Forms. 

The infinitive is a verbal noun, originally in the 
dative case. It has become, however, in Latin, an 
indeclinable noun, and may rej^lace any case in con- 
struction, but is restricted to certain uses. 



Temporal clauses may take the subjunctive also, if they have the same 
force as conditional clauses which would take the subjunctive. 

[331] A future condition is one, the truth or falsity of which will 
appear, if at all, in the future. The future (or future perfect) indicative 
may be used in such, or the present (or perfect) subjunctive. The latter 
has much the same force as in a doubtful statement, and leaves the hypo- 
thesis doubtful. It corresponds to the English "should." si veniat, if he 
should come; si probus sit, if he (shoidd prove to) be honest. 

A relative or a temporal clause sometimes has the same force as a 
future condition, and takes the same construction. 

[332] General conditions are such as refer to all time, and limit state- 
ments of general truths, memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, the 
memory weakens, unless one exercises it. The indicative is more common in 
such, except when the subject is an indefinite person, as in the quotation. 

In later writers the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are sometimes 
used in conditional clauses (and in relative or temporal clauses implying a 
condition) to express a repeated action, ubi dixisset, whenever he had 
said . . .; qvocunqve se intulisset, wherever he went . . . , etc. 

[333] Clauses dependent on a subjunctive are attracted into the sub- 
junctive if they contain an essential part of the thought, or give a modifica- 
tion of the verb they limit, which could not be omitted without an essential 
change of the idea. Restrictive clauses, for example, become subjunctive 
if dependent on a subjunctive, while those which are simply explanatory 
or parenthetical remain in the indicative, non pugnabo quominus 
utrum vclis eligas, / shall not oppose your talcing which you will. Here the 
speaker gives his opponent the privilege of taking either of two alterna- 
tives ; (vis would imply that the opponent had in some way shown his 



USE OF THE NON-FINITE VERB-FORMS. 93 



The Infinitive is used — 
(a) As an indirect object. 
(5) To express purpose. 
(<?) As subject of a verb. 
(<#) As object of a verb. 



335 
336 
337 
338 



choice, and that the speaker did not object to his taking that one, though 
he might not consent to his taking the other). The clause utrum velis is 
essential to the thought, because without it the speaker simply allows the 
taking of one alternative ; with it, he allows the taking of either one. 

In many cases, however, the subjunctive seems to be simply potential. 
See 316. Thus, utrum velis above, may be translated " ivhichever you may 
wish." "Whether the speaker shall use the indicative or the subjunctive in 
such clauses is to a great extent a matter of choice, as he may prefer to 
make the statement more or less positive in form. 

[335] The infinitive of indirect object (also called complementary infini- 
tive) follows intransitive verbs which require a second action of the same 
subject to make their sense complete, and the passive voice of verbs of 
saying and thinking, when they have a personal subject, possum videre, 
I can see (lit., I am powerful for seeing) ; Caesar dicitur advenisse, 
Cozsar is said to have arrived. In some cases it is difficult to draw the line 
between the infinitive of indirect object and that of direct object. If the 
verb is transitive, the infinitive after it may be called direct object, but 
unless it takes a direct object in other constructions, the infinitive should 
be called indirect object. The English translation is no guide in such a 
case, as many verbs are transitive in English, while verbs of the same 
meaning are intransitive in Latin. 

[336] This use is rare and poetical. It corresponds to the dative of 
purpose. 

[337] The infinitive of subject or object is used as in English, but is 
far more common, being especially frequent with verbs of saying or think- 
ing. It is thus used either with or without an expressed subject, errare 
est humanum, to err is human; biennium sit>i satis esse duxerunt, 
they thought that two years was enough for them. For this infinitive the Eng- 
lish often uses a subject or object clause with "that," as in the example 
given. 

[338] When the subject of an object infinitive is the same as that of 
the verb that governs it, this subject (se) is sometimes omitted, quae 



94 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



339 


(e) As an appositive or predicate noun. 


340 


(/) To limit nouns or adjectives as genitive, accusa- 




tive or ablative. 


341 


(<7) In exclamatory phrases. 


342 


(A) In vivid narration as a substitute for the in- 




dicative. 



imperarentur, facere dixerunt, they said that they were doing what was 
ordered. (But se facere is more common.) In such cases, the predicate 
noun or adjective is usually attracted into the nominative. See [255]. 

[339] id nuntiatum est eos conari, this news was brought, [namely) 
that they were trying .... An infinitive is frequent in apposition with hoc, 
id, illud, etc., used as subject or object, where the infinitive itself might 
stand as subject or object. (Compare, in English, "it is human to err," 
with "to err is human.") As a predicate-noun, the infinitive has nothing 
peculiar, vivere est cogitare, living is thinking. 

[340] Rare and chiefly poetic, tempus est cogitare, it is time to 
think; dignus amari, worthy to be loved ; parati certare, ready to fight; 
certus ire, resolved to go. The gerund or a derivative noun is generally 
used in such cases ; dignus amore, parati ad certaiidum, certus 

eundi. In a few cases, it stands with a participle as ablative absolute, 
limiting the whole statement. See [307]. 

Many nouns and adjectives" with the verb "be" have the force of verbs 
of saying or thinking, and take an infinitive which has the same force as 
an object infinitive. Thus, auctor sum, I assert ; sum dolore affectus, 
I am sorry, etc. The infinitive after such seems to be object of the verbal 
notion implied, not depending directly on the noun or adjective, but gov- 
erned by the verbal force of the phrase. It may be likened to the use of 
a direct object of a noun or adjective. See [262]. 

[341] The exclamatory infinitive may be compared with the nomina- 
tive and accusative in exclamations. See 259 and 264. It is sometimes 
introduced by the interrogative particle -ne. hoc non videre ! not to see 
this ! niene desistere ! that I should cease ! 

[342] Called historical infinitive. Occasionally found in rapid narra- 
tion as a substitute for the present or imperfect indicative, and takes its 
subject in the nominative. Caesar frumentum flagitare (= flagitabat), 

Ccesar kept demanding the corn. 



USE OF THE NON-FINITE VERB-FORMS. 95 



The Participles are verbal adjectives, like the 
English participles. They are used — 

(a) As simple adjectives, to limit nouns. 

(5) As predicate adjectives with sum, to make the 
periphrastic conjugations. 

(c) With the force of clauses. 

The passive participles, when used as simple adjec- 
tives to limit nouns, often express a complex idea 



343 

344 
345 

346 
347 



[344J f urens regina, the raging queen ; urbs mature peritura, a city 
destined soon to fall ; fessi milites, wearied soldiers ; hostis timendus, a 

fearful foe. This use is most common with the present active and perfect 
passive participles. Some participles become adjectives altogether in 
force and construction. 

The passive participles, in particular the present passive, when used as 
adjectives often have the force of the English verbal adjectives in -able ; 
e.g., acceptus, acceptable ; forma expetenda, desirable ; sacra non 
adeunda, unapproachable ; vix numerauda, almost innumerable. 

[345] This use is rare with the present active participle (where it makes 
a form equivalent to the present active of the verb ; amans est = amat). 

[346] This use is very, common with the present active and perfect 
passive participles, especially in the construction of the ablative absolute, 
and the participle is predicate of the equivalent clause ; the word it limits, 
subject. The participle thus used may have the force of a relative clause, 
modifying only the word it limits, but more frequently it modifies the 
whole statement and is equivalent to a temporal, causal, concessive, con- 
ditional, or (rarely) final clause; sometimes to an independent clause. 
his rebus nunciatis, when this ivas imported ; progressus in Nitiobriges, 
after he had advanced . . .; non audent, absente imperatore, egredi, 
they dare not go out, because the general is away; Cadurcus, in Rutenos 
missus, Cadurcus, who had been sent . . .; reluctante natura, if nature 
opposes; ut hos transductos necaret, to carry them over and kill them. 
The present passive participle is rarely so used, however, being almost 
entirely restricted to uses (a) and (b) ; and the future active participle is 
not common in this use, though it is sometimes found with the force of a 
final clause, especially in later Avriters. 

[347] ab urbe condita, from the founding of the city ; vos vitam 
ereptam uegligetis ? will you disregard the taking of life ? So always in 



PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



348 



which is best rendered into English by a verbal or 
abstract noun containing the meaning of the parti- 
ciple, and an object or limiting phrase containing the 
meaning of the noun. 

The Gerund is a verbal noun found in the oblique 
cases of the singular. It is declined and governed as 
a noun, but shows its verbal force in the fact that it 
is limited by adverbs, and may govern an object. 



the gerundive construction. (See [349].) consilia urbis delendae, plans 
for destroying the city ; Platonis studiosus audiendi, desirous of hearing 
Plato. So ejecti reges, the expulsion of the kings; natus Augustus, the 
birth of Augustus, etc. In notum furens quid femina possit, the knowl- 
edge of what a mad woman can do, the participle limits a clause. 

[348] The name " nominative of the gerund " is often given to a con- 
struction, which most grammarians regard as an impersonal use of the 
passive periphrastic conjugation; e.g., mihi dormiendum est, / must 
sleep. This construction resembles the passive periphrastic conjugation in 
conveying the notion of duty or propriety, but is sometimes like the 
gerund in being active and taking an object; e.g., via qvam nobis ingre- 
diendum est, the road we must go ; monendum te est mihi, / must warn 
you. There seems to be no doubt that the gerund is a specialized use of 
the neuter of the present passive participle, at a period when the meaning 
and force of the form was not so definite as later. The gerund is often 
passive in force, — e.g., in res difficilis ad explicandum, a matter hard 
to be explained, — and the passive participle is sometimes active, e.g., 
placenda dos est, the dower must please. The " nominative of the gerund " 
seems to lie between the two. 

The gerund in the genitive case, in a few instances, becomes so fully a 
noun that it takes an objective genitive instead of an object accusative, 
and takes the possessive pronoun adjective modifiers mei, tui, sui, nostri, 
vestri, instead of an object ; e.g., exeniplorum eligendi potestas, a 
chance to select examples ; vestri adhortandi cavisa, for the sake of your 
encouragement (i.e., of encouraging you). (In cases like this, however, the 
genitives mei, vestri, etc., may be considered objective genitives like 
exemplorilm above.) 

The gerund is limited in its use as follows : — 

In the genitive it may be a possessive, an appositive, or an objective 
genitive. In the dative it may be an indirect object, or may limit adjec- 



USE OF THE NON-FINITE VERB-FORMS. 97 



The gerund of transitive verbs is rare, and its place 
is usually supplied by the gerundive. This consists 
of a noun and the present passive participle in agree- 
ment with it (the two words expressing the complex 
idea spoken of in 347). 

The Supine is a verbal noun, found only in the 
accusative and ablative singular. 

The accusative of the supine is used with verbs of 
motion to express purpose. 



349 



350 
351 



tives. In the accusative it may follow a few prepositions (ad most often). 
In the ablative it may denote means or specification, rarely separation, 
manner or circumstance, and may also follow prepositions (in most often). 

[349] The name gerundive is often used of the participle only, and the 
noun and participle taken together are then called the "gerundive con- 
struction." 

The gerundive is less restricted in its use than the gerund. Besides the 
uses of the gerund it is used in the genitive (with causa omitted'?) to 
express purpose ; in the dative to express purpose, see [272] ; in the accusa- 
tive as direct object ; in the ablative to express manner or the standard of 
comparison. A few illustrations of both gerund and gerundive are added : — 

Genitive, cupidus te videndi, desirous of seeing you; finem faeit 
dicendi, he males an end of speaking ; sui muniendi non Galliae im- 
pugnandae causa, for the sake of defending himself, not of attacking Gaul. 

Dative, scribendo dat operam, he gives attention to writing ; rubeus 
ferrum non est habile tundendo, not good for forging. So in the phrase 
non esse solvendo, to be unable to pay, and the like. 

Accusative, non vacuus sum ad narrandum, I have no leisure for 
stor y -telling ; ad eum oppugnandum, to attack him; signum collocan- 
dum consules locaverunt, the consuls let out the (job of) setting up the 
statue ; aedem habuit tuendam, he had the care of the temple. 

Ablative, in dando munificus, free in giving ; alitur vitium te- 
gendo, a vice is nourished by hiding it; de contemnenda morte, concerning 
contempt for death; de liberis educandis, of the training of children. So, 
often in the titles of philosophical treatises. 

[351] venit auxilium postulatum, he came to ask help. This is 
strictly an accusative of limit. (See 265.) 

With ire, "go," the accusative of the supine make a construction nearly 
the same in force as the future tense; e.g., imusne sessum? (are we going 



98 PART IV. — SYNTAX. 



352 



The ablative of the supine is used as an ablative 
of specification. (See 300.) 



to sit?) shall we take a seat? By putting the infinitive ire in the passive, 
a form is obtained to supply the lacking future infinitive passive ; e.g., 
putat se visum iri, he thinks he will be seen. 

[352] horribile visu! fearful to see! mirabile dictu! strange to tell! 
In some of its uses the ablative of the supine seems to approach the 
meaning of a dative, and may be so called if one prefers. The form may 
be in either case. 

With opus the ablative of the supine seems to come under the head of 
means rather than specification. See [297]. 



PART V. 
THE LAWS OF VEESE IN LATIN, 



Quantity. 

Latin versification is based on a regular succession 
of long and short syllables. Quantity is therefore 
usually treated in connection with versification. 

General rules of quantity are such as apply to all 
syllables. (They have been given, 14-18.) 

Special rules of quantity are such as apply only to 
particular syllables. In Latin we have special rules 
of quantity for final vowels of stems and for suffix- 
vowels. 

The original quantity of final vowels of stems and 
of suffix-vowels has been changed in many instances 
by certain tendencies affecting final syllables; viz. : — 



353 

354 
355 

356 



[353] The system of versification described here was borrowed with 
slight modifications from the Greek poets, and was in use during and after 
the classical period. An older system, called Saturnian, is found in frag- 
ments of the older Latin, in epitaphs, etc., but is not found in literature. 

[354] The rules for syllables, long or short by position, do not always 
apply in the comedies ; syllables are treated as short in many cases, though 
their vowels are followed by two consonants. This is especially the case 
before final -s, which had but a slight sound in old Latin. 

In older Latin also, many of the special rules of quantity which follow 
are not applicable, as the tendencies spoken of had not taken effect so 
fully as later. In most cases the difference consists in the use of a vowel 
as long which is shortened in the later language. In a few cases the later 
poets have followed the older quantity, in imitation of the older writers. 

[356] These are called tendencies, and not rules, because they do not 
act systematically but affect certain words and leave others untouched. 



100 PART V. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IN LATIN. 



357 
358 

359 
360 

361 
362 

363 



1. A tendency to shorten final open yowels. 

2. A tendency to shorten vowels before final -m, -r 

and -t. 

3. A tendency to lengthen final close vowels. 

4. A tendency to lengthen open vowels before 

final -s. 

5. A tendency to lengthen accented monosyllables. 

6. A tendency to lengthen the vowel of a final syl- 

lable if an inflectional letter has been dropped. 
These tendencies seem to be allowed freer play, or 
to be restricted in their effect, when for metrical con- 
venience it is desirable to use a long syllable or a 
short one instead of the reverse. 



It is probable that some old law of accent is at the bottom of most of 
them. Their influence is more often negative than positive, i.e., they act 
as a restraint on certain syllables that would otherwise be more liable to 
change. 

[360] When an open vowel is brought before final -s by the loss of t 
or d, the tendency to lengthen seldom shows itself. 

[361] This tendency would explain das, da, vas, pes, grus, sus, vis 
(from volo), vis (noun), various particles, and perhaps sal, sol, lar, par, 
mas, though these fall also under No. 6. But it is difficult to see why the 
neuters, mel, fel, os, etc., should be left short, or why certain unaccented 
prepositions and conjunctions should be made long; e.g., why the preposi- 
tion ab should be short while the same preposition a should be long. It is 
clear that accent does not explain the difference ; and we may regard this 
tendency as doubtful, or greatly restricted. 

[362] The inflectional letters most often lost are the nominative singu- 
lar suffix -s of masculine and feminine semivowel-stems, and the suffix -in 
of the first singular active of verbs. The loss of a stem-letter does not 
seem to affect the preceding vowel, vis (= vil-s) seems to come under 

No. 5. 

[363] Thus abies, aries, paries, perhaps to prevent the concurrence 
of so many short syllables, are brought under the influence of No. 4, 
though usually such words remain unaffected. See [3G0], A final syl- 



QUANTITY. 101 



The special rules for quantity are the following : — 

I. In open vowel noun- and adjective-stems 
The vowel after the theme is short in the nom., 
ace. and voc. sg. ; long elsewhere, 

Except -es in the nom. sg. of e-stems. (4) 

Except -a in the nom. and ace. pi. of neuter 

o-stems. (1) 

II. In close vowel noun- and adjective-stems 

The vowel after the theme is short in the nom. and 

ace. sg., and in the dat. and abl. pi. : long elsewhere, 

Except -es in the nom. sg. of i-stems. (-1) 

Except -u in the nom. and ace. sg. of neuter 

u-stems. (3) 

III. The vowels of suffixes of nouns and adjectives, 
when not contracted with the stem-vowel, are short, 
Except -I final in the gen. and dat. sg. (3) 

Except -es in the nom. and ace. pi. (4) 

VI. The pronouns in general follow the rules of 
quantity for noun- and adjective-stems of like form. 



364 
365 

366 
367 

368 

369 
370 

371 

372 
373 

374 



lable may be subject to more than one tendency, acting in the same or 
in contrary directions ; in the latter case a common syllable is sometimes 
the result. For example, o, in the present indicative active first singular 
of the verb, comes under 6 and 1. 

[364] The numbers following the exceptions refer to the tendencies 
that explain them. 

[365] o is short in duo ; sometimes in ambo. These rules, I. and II., 
are rules for final stem-vowels, but the expression "vowel after the 
theme " is used, because the stem-vowel often disappears by contraction 
with the vowel of the suffix. 

[368] I-stems, when they lose i and become consonant-stems, of course 
come under rule III. 
For grus, sus and vis, see [361]. Bos is contracted. 

[374] O of ego is short; qvi (nom.) is long. (5). 



102 PART V. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IN LATIN. 



375 
376 

377 

378 
379 

380 



381 
382 
383 
384 

385 

386 
387 



388 



In the forms unlike those of nouns and adjectives, it 
should be noticed that we find the vowel after the 
theme long in 

The nom. neuter forms in -c, (6) 

The personal pronouns, except the dat. sg. ; 
and common in 

The gen. sg. ending -lus. 
We find the suffix vowel 

Common in the dat. sg., -bi, -hi. (3) 

Long in the dat. and abl. pi., -bis. 

V. In the nominative singular of consonant-stems 
the quantity of the last syllable of the stem is re- 
tained, except in 

Nominatives in -o from stems in -on and -in. (1, 6) 
Nominatives in -or from stems in or. (2) 

arbos, Ceres, pnbes ; abies, aries, paries, pes. (4) 
sal, lar, par ; mas. (5 or 6) 

VI. In the verb the final vowel of vowel-stems is 
long 

Except before final -m or -t. (2) 

VII. In the mood-and-tense signs the initial vowel 
before -r is short when unabsorbed; the other vowels 
are long 

Except before final -m, -r and -t. (2) 



[378J The same suffix bl is found in ib! and ubi, old ease-forms of is 
and qvi. 

[385] The length of the final vowel of verb-stems is due to the absorp- 
tion of the initial vowel of the sign or suffix. It is short, therefore, in 
those verb-forms that omit this vowel ; viz., the verb do, throughout [ex- 
cept das, da (5)J and in the subjunctive forem, etc., infinitive fore, and 
the twelve non-finite stem-forms given in [209J. 

In the imperative active second singular, the stem-vowel e is occasion- 
ally shortened in a few forms that are often used interjectionally; e.g., 
vide, see ! tac6, hush ! cav6, beware ! 



VERSIFICATION. 103 



VIII. The vowels of verb-STiffixes are short 

Except final -I. (3) 

Except -o of the hid., when unabsorbecl. (1, 5) 
Except -o in the imper. endings -Ito, -Itote, -unto. 
Except -u in the fut. act. part, ending -turo. 

IX. The reduplication-prefix is short. 

X. Uninflectecl monosyllables are long, if they end 
in a vowel ; short, if they end in a consonant. 

XI. In un inflected polysyllables the tendencies 
mentioned above have fuller effect, and become rules, 
Except final -a. 

Versification. 

Syllables, in Latin verse, are either long or short, 
a long syllable being in most cases the equivalent of 
two short ones. 



389 
390 
391 
392 
393 

394 
395 

396 
397 

398 



[387] E is usually long in the perfect active ending -erunt (rarely 
-erunt) ; i is short in the perfect active ending -miiis. The occasional 
shortening of I in the perfect subjunctive sign is due to confusion with the 
future perfect indicative. See [175]. 

[389] For I in the future perfect active suffixes, see [179]. 

[390] The final I of -imini is properly a nominative plural ending of 
an old participial form, and therefore long by rule III. 

[395] Cras and en are long; also non (contracted). Cur, hie, hue, 
qvln, sic, sin, contain old case-forms. 

Qve, ne, ve, ce, pte, are always attached to other words,' and are 
therefore not monosyllabic in their use. Re- is usually short (standing 
for an older form red-). 

[396] Final e and o in adverbs from o-stems are only apparent excep- 
tions ; such adverbs are old case-forms. But a few of these are shortened 
(by 1), giving bene, male, interne, superne; cito, modo, ilico, pro- 
tects ; rarely other words, ohe should, perhaps, be two words. 

[397] Final a is shortened in eja, ita, puta, quia (an old accusative 
plural), Note as an exception also penes. 



104 



PART V. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IN LATIN. 



399 

400 

401 
402 
403 
404 
405 



A foot is a combination of two or more syllables, 
used as the element of a verse. 

The fundamental feet in Latin verse are the 
following : — 

The Dactyl (one long, two short), -L ^ w 

The Anapest (two short, one long), w w -l. 

The Trochee (one long, one short), -L\j. 

The Iambus (one short, one long), w -l. 
By substituting a long syllable for the two short 

ones in the dactyl or anapest we get a spondee, ; 

and by resolving the long syllable of the trochee or 
iambus into two short ones, we get a tribrach, w w v^. 
These are not used as the fundamental foot of a 
verse, but are often substituted for it, and may 
therefore be called ''substitute" feet. 



[401] It will be noticed that the dactyl and anapest, being equivalent 
to four short syllables, correspond to quadruple time in music, while the 
trochee and iambus correspond in like manner to triple time. They may 
be represented in musical notation as follows : — 



Dactyl. 



Anapest. 



Spondee. 



§|ts^ iNsi it^! 




Trochee. 



3=jK 



1 



Iambus. 



3: 



^ i 



Tribrach. 



*e 



The accent given above shows the metrical stress. Substitute feet take 
the metrical accent of the feet they replace, and when a long syllable is 
resolved into two short ones, the metrical stress falls on the first of the 
two short. 

In lyric and dramatic writers are found other feet also ; viz. : the 

Pyrrhic, w w ; the Bacchlus, w ; the Cretic, v, . By combining 

the fundamental feet and their substitutes are formed various com- 
pound feet ; e.g., Diiambus, w w ; Ditrochee, \j \j I Dispondee, 

; Choriambus, v^ ^ ; Greater Ionic, w w ; Lesser 

Ionic, v> w ; etc. 



VERSIFICATION. 105 



The trochee and iambus are not used singly to 
form verses, but in pairs, called dipodies. 

A verse is a set of feet or dipodies, recurring 
regularly, and forming a "line" of poetry. 

Verses are named from their fundamental foot, and 
from the number of feet or dipodies they contain. 

The most common kinds of verse are the follow- 
ing : — 

(a) Dactylic Hexameter, — six dactyls or equiva- 
lent spondees. Its scale is 

W W WW W W W W WW w 

( ) 

The spondee is regular in the sixth foot, but rare 
in the fifth. 

(b~) Dactylic Pentameter, — two parts, each of two 
dactyls and a half. Its scale is 

WW WW WW WW ^ 

The spondee is allowed in the first part, not in the 
second. 



406 
407 
408 
409 
410 

411 
412 

413 



[4.08] Dactylic, trochaic, iambic, etc., from the kind of foot ; monometer, 
dimeter, trimeter, etc., from the number of feet or dipodies. 

[410] The caesura (see 420) usually falls in the third foot; less often 
in the fourth, or second. 

[411] A trochee often replaces the final spondee. See 419. 

[412] The dactylic pentameter is the same as the hexameter, with the 
loss of the second half of the third and sixth feet. This loss is analogous 
to a rest in music. The pentameter is not used alone, but alternately with 
the hexameter to form the " elegiac couplet." The following verses give 
illustrations of this use, and show the character of each kind of verse : — 
ille ego qvi f US' rim, || tSnerorum lusor Smdrum, 

qvem legis, ut noris, || accipe posterities. 

Sulmo mihi patria est, || gelidis iiberrimus undis, 

milia qvi novies || distat alb urbe decern. 



106 PART V. — THE LAWS OF VERSE IN LATIN. 



414 
415 

416 

417 
418 

419 



Iambic and trochaic verses are composed of di- 
podies, and verses of various length occur, either 
complete or catalectic (i.e., lacking the last syllable). 

The first foot of any iambic dipody, and the second 
foot of any trochaic dipody may be replaced by a 
spondee, or, rarely, by the equivalent of an iambus, 
trochee or spondee. 

In comedy the spondee, and the equivalents of the 
spondee, the trochee, or the iambus may stand in any 
foot except the last. 

In order to understand the structure of Latin 
verse, the following facts of usage must be noted : — 

(a) A final vowel, or final -m with the foregoing 
vowel, is regularly dropped when the next word 
begins with a vowel or h. 

(6) The last syllable of a verse may be either long 
or short at the option of the writer. 



edittis hinc ego sum, || nee nun fit tempora noris, 

cum cecidit f ato || consul titerqve pari : 
si qvid id est, usqve a proavis || vettis ordinis heres, 
non modo fortiinae || munere facttis equSs. 
(For the loss of a final vowel in verse before an initial vowel, see 418.) 

[414] The most common iambic verse is the trimeter, consisting of 
three dipodies ; the most common trochaic verse is the tetrameter cata- 
lectic; four dipodies, but lacking the last syllable. The caesura of the 
former occurs in the second dipody, usually in the first foot ; the latter is 
divided uniformly by a diaeresis after the second dipody. 

[416] Various kinds of verses, besides those mentioned here, are found 
in the lyric poets, and the editions of their writings generally contain 
schedules of the metres used. It has not seemed necessary, therefore, to 
insert any description of them here. 

[418] Called elision. It occurs very rarely at the end of a verse. Rarely, 
also, a vowel remains unelided within a verse. Such cases are called hiatus. 
[419] I.e., a short syllable may be used though the meter calls for a 
long one, and vice versa. 



VERSIFICATION. 107 



(c) Long verses are regularly divided into two 
nearly equal parts by a metrical pause, which usually 
coincides with a pause in the sense. . This pause is 
called ccesura when it occurs within a foot, and 
diceresis when it falls between feet. 

(d) Metrical irregularities occur at times, as in 
English poetry. A short syllable is found now and 
then where the metre calls for a long one, or a long 
one where the metre requires a short one. Two 
syllables are sometimes run into one. Such irregu- 
larities are very rare in good poets. 



420 



421 



[420] A ccesura occurs whenever a foot is divided between two words, 
but the name is usually given only to the chief ccesura as here. The 
dactylic pentameter gives a good illustration of diaeresis. 



SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. 



[A few peculiarities of usage, belonging rather to the lexicon, or to a manual 
of Latin composition, than to a grammar, are added here for convenience of 
reference^ 



422 
423 
424 

425 



426 



427 



428 



429 



430 
431 



A. Negative Particles. 

The usual negative is non. 

An older negative is haud. It survives in a few phrases. 

Ne is used in commands and in final sentences, also in 
ne . . . quidem, not even. 

neqve (or nee) is equivalent to et non; neve (or lieu) to 
et ne. 

B. Interrogative Particles. 

Questions answered by yes or no are not indicated, as in 
English, by the order of the words, but by the use of the inter- 
rogative particles -ne and num. 

-ne appended to the prominent word of the sentence shows 
that it is a question, but gives no indication what answer is 
expected. 

The insertion of a negative word shows, as in English, that 
the answer yes is expected. In such cases -ne is appended to 
the negative as the prominent word. 

num. shows that the answer no is expected. 

aderasne ? were you present ? dixitne ? did he speak f 

nonne aderas? were you not present? nunqvamne dicet? 
will he never speak ? 

num aderas ? you were not present, were you ? 

The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted. 

Questions are usually answered by repeating some of the 
words of the question, but sometimes non is used for no, and 
etiam, vero ; or some other adverb of emphasis, for yes. 



USE OF THE PRONOUNS. 109 

Alternative or double questions generally take utrum or -ne 432 
in the first member, and an in the second. 

utrum aderas an aberas ? were you present or absent ? 

If the second member is simply a negative, " or not" it is ex- 433 
pressed by an non or necne. 

utrum aderas necne ? were you present or not f 

The first member of an alternative question is sometimes 434 
omitted, and an seems to introduce a single question. In such 
cases the question expresses some surprise, and an is nearly 
equivalent to num. 

an aderas? [am I mistaken or] were you present? 



C. Use of the Pronouns. 

The use of the pronouns is, in general, as follows : — 

Ego and tu are used as in English, but are regularly omitted 435 
in the nominative case, except when emphatic, as the personal 
endings of the verb express them. 

nos is sometimes used for a single person (= ego) ; vos is 436 
never so used for tu. 

sui is used for him, her, them, their, when these words refer to 437 
the subject of the clause in which they stand. In a dependent 
clause sui refers to the subject of the principal clause, if the 
subordinate clause expresses the purpose or thought of that 
subject. (For a pronoun of the third person not referring to 
the subject, a demonstrative is used. See below.) 

se and suus are sometimes used, however, referring to some 438 
other word than the subject, if no ambiguity is caused by 
doing so. 

The possessive pronouns are used as in English. Suus, like 439 
sui, is reflexive. (For a third person possessive, not reflexive, 
the 'genitive of a demonstrative, ejus, illius, etc., is used.) 

Hie means this ; ille, that; iste, that (of yours), and from its 440 
frequent use in addressing an opponent, often has a contemptu- 
ous meaning, is is a weaker this or that, and is the usual third 
personal pronoun not reflexive. As antecedent of a relative, 
is qvi means " he who" " any one who "; ille qvi means " that 
(man yonder) who" 



110 SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. 



441 



442 



443 



444 



445 



446 



447 



448 



Ipse, when used as a substantive, is an emphatic "he," "he 
himself." As an adjective, it emphasizes the word it limits; 
homo ipse, "the man himself" "the very man"; ego ipse, "I 
myself" etc. The genitive is used to emphasize the possessive 
idea of the possessive pronouns ; mea ipsius sententia, my own 
opinion. 

When subject and object are the same, the Latin regularly 
emphasizes the former, me ipse diligo, I love myself (not 
me ipsum). 

The relative qvi has the same force as the .English who, which, 
or that, but is used more freely, often where the English uses a 
separate independent statement, so that qvi has the same force 
as et is, et ille, or is autem, ille vero, etc. 

The indefinite pronouns in general mean some, any, one, etc. 
qvidam means "a certain" ; qvis and qvispiam, "one," "any 
one"; aliqvis, "some one." qvivis and qvilibet mean "any 
one you please "; qvisqvam and ullus, " any whatever," and are 
usually used in negative sentences, so that with the negative 
they mean " none at all." 

Many other words are used to express the indefinite idea of 
some, any, a few, etc. Their force and meaning must be learned 
from the lexicon and by practice in reading and writing the 
language. 

D. Forms of Conditional Sentences. 

Conditional clauses are regularly introduced by si, if, or a 
compound of si, and the verb of such a clause usually takes the 
mood of the verb on which it depends. The dependent condi- 
tion is often called a protasis, the conclusion on which it depends 
an apodosis. 

There are three well-marked forms of conditional sentences, — 
(a) with the indicative ; (b) with a primary tense of the sub- 
junctive ; (c) with a secondary tense of the subjunctive : — 

(a) The indicative in conditions has its usual force and needs 
no special explanation. It regularly limits an indicative, but 
may depend on an imperative or a subjunctive of command. It 
implies nothing as to the truth or falsehood of the supposed 



FORMS OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. Ill 



si deus es, tribuere mortalibus beneficia debes, if you are 

a god, you ought to give benefits to men. 

sin autem homo es, semper cogita . . . etc., but if you are a 
man, always consider . . . etc. 

inteream, si novi! may I perish if I knoio! 

(b) The primary tenses of the subjunctive denote the non- 
existence of the supposed state, but imply its possibility, and 
refer therefore to the future. They usually limit a present or 
perfect potential subjunctive, but are also used to limit verbs 
whose meaning is such as to express a potential or hypothetical 
idea; e.g., debeo, possum, volo, etc., or the periphrastic con- 
jugation forms. See 331. 

si negem, mentiar, if I should deny it, I should lie. 

defendat patrem, si arguatur, he would defend his father, if 
he should be accused. 

(The perfect tense is rare, and differs from the present only 
in laying stress on the completion of the action.) 

(c) The secondary tenses of the subjunctive express the non- 
reality of the supposed case, and refer therefore to the present 
or past, the imperfect being used for present time, the pluper- 
fect for past. They regularly limit an imperfect or pluperfect 
potential subjunctive. See 327. 

pacem 11011 peterem nisi utilem crederem, I should not ask 
for peace, if I did not think it advantageous . 

te necassem, nisi iratus essem, I should have killed you 
had I not been angry. 



The second person singular of the present and imperfect 
subjunctive is used, moreover, in a general condition, to limit 
a present or imperfect indicative which states a general 
truth. See 332. 

mens et animus, nisi oleum instilles extingvuntur senec- 
tute, mind and soul are extinguished by age, unless one pours 
in oil. 

si attenderes acrius, strepitus vinculorum reddebatur, if 
one listened more attentively, the rattling of chains was heard. 



449 



450 



451 



452 



112 SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. 

453 The conditional particle si is sometimes omitted. The verb 
is then usually put first, as in English. 

roges me, nihil respondeam, should you ask me, I should 
make no answer; dedisses, had you given, etc. 

454 So absqve te esset, were it not for you, and like expressions 
in the comic poets. 

455 The real conclusion is often omitted, or only implied in an 
epithet or exclamation. In such cases a conditional subjunc- 
tive often seems to limit an indicative, but the sense of the 
passage usually suggests the proper conclusion. Here belong 
expressions of wishing with O si (see 320) ; clauses expressing 
a comparison after qvasi, etc. (see [327] ), subjunctives depend- 
ing on debeo, possum, etc. (see 449), and various cases where 
the writer prefers to put a direct statement in place of a 
doubtful one suggested by the form of the thought. 

456 Relative and temporal clauses sometimes imply a condition, 
and take the same construction as the implied condition would 
take, if formally expressed. 



E. Reported Speech. 

457 Reports of speeches or thoughts of others may be made by 
quoting the exact words uttered or thought, or with the form 
changed by making the words or thoughts dependent on some 
verb of saying or thinking, etc. In the latter case, the language 
is called "oratio obliqua," or "indirect discourse." E.g., "He 
said that he had made a mistake," is indirect discourse corre- 
sponding to the direct form ("oratio recta"), U I have made a 
mistake." 

458 When the words of: a speaker or writer are quoted in the in- 
direct form, the following changes take place : — 

459 (a) The pronouns will change in person, as in English, 
according to the circumstances and requirements of the sense 
(ordinarily all becoming of the third person). 

460 (b) The tenses only change as required by the rule of se- 
quence, 312. But the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in 
a condition impliedly false remains after primary tenses, to 
prevent confusion of meaning with future or possible condi- 



REPORTED SPEECH. 



113 



tions, and the primary tenses are often retained after a second- 
ary tense for vividness or exactness. 

(c) When indicatives of those tenses which have no sub- 
junctive (viz., future and future perfect) are changed to the 
subjunctive, or when indicatives of those tenses that have no 
infinitive (viz., imperfect, pluperfect, future, and future perfect) 
are changed to the infinitive, they take the tense nearest them 
in time. Thus the — 

( Future ind. becomes pres. subj. (or imperfect by sequence). 
( Fut. pf. ind. " perf. subj. (or pluperfect by sequence), 
f Imperf. hid. " perfect infinitive. 
I Plupf. ind. " perfect infinitive. 

Future ind. " present inf. of active periphrastic conj. 
Fut. pf. ind. " present inf. of active periphrastic conj. 



(d) The moods change as follows : — 
In principal sentences, 

( i 

Statements < 
(i 



in ind. (313) become infinitive, 
in sub. (316) 



("inf. of active periph. conj. 
1 (usually perf., rarely pres.) 

infinitive. 



in ind. (314) ) 
1st & 3d pers. ) 
Questions •{ in ind. (314) 7 
2d person ) 
in sub. (317) 

Commands | inim P-( 315 ) 
1 in sub. (318) 

In subordinate sentences, 

All verbs i^^-l 
(. m sub. ) 

As the first periphrastic conjugation has only an active mean- 
ing, when a subj. of statement is passive, it is expressed in the 
oratio obliqua by futurum fuisse ut (less often futurum esse 
or fore), followed by a passive verb. 

(e) Relative clauses, though subordinate in form, are in many 
cases equivalent to principal clauses, and statements contained 
in such are sometimes treated as principal statements and are 



subjunctive. 

subjunctive, 
subjunctive, 
subjunctive. 



subjunctive. 



SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. 

put in the infinitive instead of the subjunctive. In a few 
cases other subordinate clauses are treated in the same way, if 
the meaning would not be changed by making them inde- 
pendent in the direct form. The same principle is the cause of 
the use of the infinitive in reported questions of the first or 
third person, these questions being usually equivalent to state- 
ments, and put in the form of questions only for rhetorical 
effect. 

478 (/) The indicative is used in explanatory clauses inserted by 
the narrator, and not belonging, therefore, to the reported 
speech. Rarely, also, the indicative is found in other subordi- 
nate clauses. 



F, Order of Words and Clauses. 

479 In a normal prose sentence the subject comes first and is 
followed by its modifiers ; the verb stands last, preceded by 
its modifiers. 

480 Modifiers of nouns may either follow or precede their nouns ; 
modifiers of other parts of speech more often precede. 

481 Demonstrative pronouns usually precede, and relative and 
interrogative pronouns regularly stand at the beginning of their 
clauses. 

482 Modifying clauses are subject to the same general rules of 
order as words and phrases; those which limit nouns more 
often follow ; those which limit verbs more often precede. 

483 Few sentences of any length, however, show the normal order, 
as the usual position of words and clauses is constantly varied 
for the sake of rhythm or emphasis. 

484 No definite statement of the influence of rhythm on the order 
of words can be given, but a dislike of a monosyllable (other 
than est or sunt) at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry 
is noticeable in good Latin writers. 

485 Any word may be emphasized by putting it out of its usual 
position. The beginning and end of a sentence are the specially 
emphatic positions. 

486 In poetry the order of words is fixed to a great extent by the 
requirements of metre. 



DATES. 115 



Gr. Dates. 

The year is expressed in Latin by giving the names of the 
consuls for that year in the ablative absolute, or by the number 
of years from the founding of the city; e.g.: — 
L. Pisone, A. Gabinio consulibus ") 
anno urbis conditae DCXCVI \ = 58 B.C. 
anno ab urbe concilia DCXCVI ) 

These expressions are seldom written in full. For consulibus 
we find coss. ; for anno urbis conditae, a. u. c. 

The month is expressed by mense with the proper month- 
name added as an adjective; e.g., mense Junto, in June; exeunte 
mense Aprili, at the end of April, etc. 

The day of the month was reckoned backward from three 
fixed dates, the Kalends, Nones, and Ides (Kalendae, Nonae, 
Idus) ; the first being originally the day of the new moon, the 
last, that of the full moon. The Kalends was the first day of 
the month; the Nones was usually the fifth, but in March, 
May, July, and October, the seventh ; the Ides was the eighth 
day after the Nones, and, therefore, the thirteenth or fifteenth. 

Dates falling on the Kalends, Nones or Ides were expressed 
by Kalendis, Nonis or Idibus, with the name of the month 
added as an adjective; e.g., Kalendis Juniis (June 1), Nonis 
Aprilibus (April 5), Idibus Decembribus (Dec. 13), etc. 

Dates falling between the Kalends and Nones are reckoned 
backward from the Nones. The day before the Nones was 
called pridie Nonas (see [268] ) ; the second day before was 
expressed by tertio die ante Nonas, or ante diem tertium Nonas, 
as the Romans counted in the day reckoned from. In like 
manner the third day before was called fourth, etc. 

Dates falling between the Nones and Ides were expressed in 
the same way, pridie Idus Aprilis, ante diem sextum Idus Martias, 
etc. So, too, dates falling between the Ides and Kalends, the 
adjective added being, of course, the name of the following month. 

These expressions are seldom written in full, the usual con- 
traction being of the form prid. Kal. Mart., IV. Non. Apr., VI. 
Id. Sept., etc.; or a. d. iv Non. Apr., etc. 

In leap-year the 21th of February was counted twice, so that 
both the 21th and 25th of the month were called VI. Kal. Mart. 



116 



SUPPLEMENT TO SYNTAX. 



496 I The days of the months are given in the following schedule : — 



DAT 

or 


January (also 
August and 


February. 


March (also 
May, July, 


April (also 
June, Sept., and 


Month. 


December). 




and October) . 


November) . 


1 


Kal. Jan. 


Kal. Feb. 


Kal. Mart. 


Kal. Apr. 


2 


IY Non. Jan. 


iv Non. Feb. 


VI Non. Mart. 


IV Non. Apr. 


3 


in " " 


in " " 


v « « 


in " " 


4 


prid. " " 


prid. " " 


IV " " 


prid. " " 


5 


Non. Jan. 


Non. Feb. 


in " " 


Non. Apr. 


6 


viii Id. Jan. 


viii Id. Feb. 


prid. " " 


viii Id. Apr. 


7 


VII " " 


VII " " 


Non. Mart. 


VII " " 


8 


VI " " 


VI " " 


VIII Id. Mart. 


VI " " 


9 


y « « 


y « << 


VII " " 


Y " '« 


10 


IV " " 


IV " " 


VI " " 


IV 


11 


in " " 


III " " 


V " " 


III " " 


12 
13 


prid. " " 
Id. Jan. 


prid. " " 

Id. Feb. 


IV " " 

III " " 


prid. " " 
Id. Apr. 


14 


xix Kal. Feb. 


xvi Kal. Mart. 


prid. " " 


xvni Kal. Maias. 


15 


XVIII " " 


XV " " 


Id. Mart. 


XVII " " 


1G 


XVII " " 


XIV " " 


xvn Kal. Apr. 


XVI " " 


17 


XVI " " 


XIII " " 


XVI " " 


XV " " 


18 


XV " " 


XII " " 


XV " " 


XIV " " 


19 


XIV " " 


XI " " 


XIV " " 


XIII " " 


20 


XIII " " 


x " " 


XIII " " 


XII 


21 
22 
23 
24 


XII " " 
XI " " 
X " " 
IX " " 


IX " " 




XII " " 
XI " " 
X " " 
IX 


XI " " 
X " " 
IX " " 
VIII " " 


VIII " " 
VII " " 
VI " " 


In leap year. 


vi Kal. M. 


25 


VIII " " 


v " « 


VI " " 


VIII " " 


VII " " 


26 


VII " " 


IV " " 


v " " 


VII " " 


VI " " 


27 


VI " " 


III " " 


IV " " 


VI " " 


V . '" " 


28 


V " " 


prid. " " 


III " " 


Y « " 


rv " " 


29 


IV " " 




prid." " 


IV " " 


in " " 


30 


III " " 




III " " 


prid. " " 


31 


prid. " " 




prid. " " 





497 



The schedule here given was in use after Caesar's reform of 
the calendar, B.C. 45. Before that date the Roman year had 
only 355 days, and an extra month was inserted every other 
year after Feb. 23, 



APPENDIX. 
498. List of Verbs 

[Compiled from Moby's Latin Grammar.'] 

[This list contains all the verbs of the Latin language, with the 
following exceptions, viz. : — 

1. Stems in -a or -i, which use the simple stem as present stem and 
form the perfect stem by adding -v. Most of them are derived from 
nouns or adjectives, and form their principal parts after the models 
here given : — 

dono donare donavi donatum dona- 

finio finire finivi finltum fini- 

2. Consonant-stems which form the present stem by adding -e, and 
the perfect stem by adding -u ; and lack the forms from the simple 
stem. Most of them are derived from nouns or adjectives, and form 
their principal parts after the model here given : — 

floreo florere florui flor- 

3. Verbs which form the present stem by adding -sc, -esc or -isc, 
and have only the incomplete tenses, or form the perfect stem, when 
one is found, by adding -u, Examples are : — 

gemmasco gemmascere gemma- 

roresco rorescere ror- 

ingemisco ingemiscere ingemui in-gem- 

4. Compounds which do not differ from the simple verb, or differ 
only in the usual weakening of the stem vowel, or in being defective. 
Weakening of diphthongs is mentioned, however. 

The supine form is given, though but few verbs have a supine in 
use, whenever a future active or perfect passive participle is found to 
decide what the form of the supine would be. 

Forms preceded by a hyphen (e.g., -lictus) are found only in com- 
pounds.] 



118 



APPENDIX. 



Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. 

Accerso (another spelling of arcesso). 

acuo acuere acui 

aegreo aegrere 

adolesco (see -oleo) 

agnosco (see nosco) 

ago agere egi 

ajo (defective. See [235].) 

albeo albere 

algeo algere alsi 

alo alere alui 

alituni also in later writers. 
amicio amicire amici amictum 

amicui, amixi are mentioned as perf. 
ango angere 



Stem. 



aciitum 


sharpen 


acu- 




be sicl" 


aegr- ? 




grow 


ad-ole- 




know 


ad-gno- 


actum 


drive 


ag- 




smj 


ag-? 




be ivhite 


alb-? 




be cold 


alg- 


altum 


nourish 


al- 



clothe 



amic- 



apiscor 
arceo 



apisci 
arcere 



arcui 



aptus 
( arctus 
\ artus 
In componnds, ex-ercitus, co-ercitus. 

arcesso arcessere arcessivi arcessitum 
ardeo ardere arsi arsum 

arguo arguere argui argutum 

arguiturus, once. 

audeo audere ausum 

For perf. ausus sum is used. See [216] (</) 

ave (defective. See [235].) 

aveo avere 

augeo augere auxi auctum 



throttle, vex ang- 
get ap- 

inclose arc- 



summon arcess-i- 
be on fire ard- 
charge argu- . 



dare 



aud- 



hail ! 

long av-? 

increase aug- 



Batuo batuere batui beat batu- 

bibo bibere bibi drink blb- 

The stem is properly ba, but becomes bib- by reduplication and 
loss of the final vowel. See [158]. 
-buro -burere -bussi -bustum burn bus- 



LIST OF VERBS. 



119 



Pres. Ind. 


Pees. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


Cado 


cadere 


cecldi 


casum 


fall 


cad- 


caecutio 


caecutlre 






be blind 


caeciiti? 


caedo 


caedere 


cecidi 


caesum 


fell, kill 


caed- 


Compounds weaken ae to I. 








caleo 


calere 


calui 


calitum 


be hot 


cal- 


calveo 


calvere 






be bald 


calv-? 


calvor 


calvi 






play tricks 


calv- 


caneo 


canere 






be gray 


can-? 


cano 


canere 


cecini 


(-cantum) 


sing 


can- 


In compounds, the 


perfect is -cinui (oc-cecini once). 




capesso 


capessere 


capessivi 


capessitum seize 


capess-i- 


capio 


capere 


cepi 


cap turn 


take 


cap- 


careo 


carere 


carui 


caritum 


be in want 


car- 


caro 


carere 






card 


car- 


carpo 


carpere 


carpsi 


carptum 


pluck 


carp- 


caveo 


cavere 


cavi 


cautum 


beware 


cav- 


cavitum, rare. 










cedo 


cedere 


cessi 


cessum 


yield 


ced- 


cedo (imperative) plnr, 


, cette, no other forms. 


give 


ced-? 


-cello 


-cellere 


-ctili 


-culsum 


strike ? 


cel- 


Also 


ex-cellui. celsus, excelsus, praecelsus are adjectives. 


-cendo 


-cendere 


-cendi 


-censum 


set on f re 


cend- 


censeo 


censere 


censui 


censum 


count 


cens- 


cerno 


cernere 


crevi 


cretum 


decide 


cer-, ere- 



(ci 



citum 



certus is used as an adjective. 
(ciere ^ 

cio (. cire 

In compounds also -citus sometimes. 
cingo cingere cinxi cinctum 

clango clangere 

claudo claudere clausi clausum 

Compounds weaken the stem to -clud. 
clepo clepere clepsi cleptum 

clueo cluere -clutum 

coenaturio coenaturire 



stir up ci- 



gird 

clang 

close 

steal 

be called 



cing- 

clang- 

claud- 



clep- 
clu- 



luish to dine coenattiri-? 



120 




APPENDIX. 






Pres. Ind. 


Pees. Inf. 


Peke. Ind. 


Sup. on Part. 




Stem. 


cognosco 


(see nosco) 






know 


co-gno- 


cogo 


cogere 


coegi 


coactum 


compel 


co-ag- 


colo 


colere 


colui 


cultum 


cultivate col- 


coepio 


coepere 


coepi 


coeptum 


begin 


co-ap- 


como 


comere 


compsi 


comptum 


comb 


com- 


compercc 


i compercere compersi 




save 


com-parc- 


comperio 


(see pario) 






find out 


com-par- 


compesco (see pasco) 






curb 


com-pas- 


concino (; 


see cano) 






sing 


con-can- 


consiilo 


consulere 


consului 


consultum 


consult 


consul- 


coqvo 


coqvere 


coxi 


coctum 


cook 


coqv- 


credo 


credere 


credidi 


creditum 


believe 


cre-d- 


crepo 


crepare 


crepui 


crepitum 


rattle , 


crep- 


cresco 


crescere 


crevi 


cretum 


grow 


cre- 


( cubo 
( -cumbo 


( cub are 
1 -curnbere 


cubui 


cubitum 


lie 


ciib- 


cubavi, rare. 










cQdo 


cudere 


cudi 


cusum 


hammer 


cud- 


ciipio 


cupere 


cupivi 


cupitum 


desire 


ciip-i 



Imperfect subjunctive cupiret once. 
curro currere cucurri cursum rur. 

Compounds sometimes retain the reduplication. 
-cutio (see qvatio). 



curr- 



Debeo 

dego 

deleo 

dementio 

derno 

depso 

dico 



debere 

degere 

delere 

dem entire 

demere 

depsere 

dicere 



debui debitum 



delevi deletum 



dempsi 
depsui 
dixi 

didici 



demptum 

depstum 

dictum 



dUego (see lego). 
disco discere 

Compounds keep the reduplication. 
divido dividere divisi divisum 

do (see 226) dare dedi datum 



oive deb- 

pass time deg- 



destroy 
be mad 
remove 
knead 
say 

learn 

divide 
giv 



de-le- 

dementi-? 

dem- 

deps- 

dic- 

dic- 

di-vid- 
da- 



Compounds retain the reduplication (except abscon-di). 



LIST OF VERBS. 



121 



Pees. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


doceo 


docere 


docui 


doctum 


teach 


doc- 


doleo 


dolere 


dolui 


dolitum 


grieve 


dol- 


domo 


domare 


domui 


domifcum 


tame 


doin- 


duco 


ducere 


duxi 


ductuni 


lead 


duc- 


Edo(see22 


3) edere 


edi 


esuni 


eat 


ed- 


essum 


, and estum, 


rare. 








emo 


emere 


emi 


emptum 


take, buy era- 


empturio 


empturire 






wish to 


buy emptiiri- ' 



eo (see 227) ire ivi 

Perfect -ii in compounds. 

excello (see cello) 

expergiscor expergisci 
expergitum, old. 

exuo exuere exui 



excel ex-cel- 
experrectum arouse ex-per-reg- 

exutum strip off exu- 



Facesso facessere 


facessivi 


facessitum 


make 


facess 


facio facere 


feci 


factum 


make 


fac- 


fallo fallere 


fefelli 


falsum 


deceive 


fall- 


farcio farcire 


farsi 


fartum 


stuff 


farc- 


fate or fateri 




fassus 


confess 


fat- 


fatisco fatiscere 




-fessum 


gape 


fat- 


Also deponent. 










faveo favere 


favi 


fautum 


favor 


fav- 


-fendo -fendere 


-fendi 


-fensum 


strike 


fend- 


ferio ferire 






strike 


feri-? 


fero ferre 


(tuli) 


(latum) 


carry 


fer- 


tiili and latum are borrowed from tollo. 


tetuli is old. 


ferveo ( fervere 
fervo ( fervere 


fervi, ferbui 


boil 


ferv- 










fido fidere 




flsum 


trust 


fid- 


fisus sum is used 


as perfect. 


See [216], (g). 




figo figere 


fixi 


fixum 


fix 


fig- 


fictus, rare. 










fio(see229) fieri 




(factus) 


become 


fi- 


fiudo findere 


fidi 


iissum 


cleave 


fid- 



122 




APPENDIX. 






Pres. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


fingo 


fingere 


finxi 


fictum 


form 


fig- 


flaveo 


flavere 






be yellow 


flav-? 


fleo 


flere 


flevi 


fletum 


weep 


fle- 


flecto 


flectere 


flexi 


flexum 


bend 


flect- 


-fligo 


-fligere 


-flixi 


-flictum 


strike 


flig- 


fluo 


fluere 


fluxi 


fluxum 


fioiu 


flugv- 


fodio 


fodere 


fodi 


fossum 


dig 


fod- 


fodiri old. 










foeteo 


foetere 






be fetid 


foet-? 


[for] see [235] fari 




fatum 


speak 


fa- 


foveo 


fovere 


fovi 


fotum 


cherish 


fov- 


frango 


frangere 


fregi 


fractum 


break 


frag- 


fremo 


fremere 


fremui 


fremitum 


roar 


frem- 


frendo 


frendere 




fressum 


gnash 


frend- 


Also fresum. 










frico 


fricare 


fricui 


frictum 


rub 


fric- 


Also fricatum. 










frige o 


frigere 


frixi 




be cold 


frig- 


frigo 


frigere 




frictum 


roast 


frig- 


frondeo 


frondere 






leaf 


frond-? 


fruor 


frui 




fructum 


enjoy 


f ru-, f rug-? 


fruitus once, fruiturus once. 








fiigio 


fugere 


fugi 


fugitum 


flee 


fttg- 


fulcio 


fulcire 


fulsi 


fultum 


prop 


fulc- 


fulgeo 
fulgo 


( fulgere 
( fulgere 


fulsi 




shine 


fulg- 


fundo 


fundere 


fiidi 


fusum 


pour 


fud- 


fungor 


fungi 




functus 


discharge 


fung- 


[fuo] (see sum) 


fui 


fiiturus 


be 


fu- 


furo 


furere 






raqe 


fiir- 



Gaudeo gaudere gavisum be glad gavid- 

gavisus sum is used as perfect. See [216], (g). 

glmo gemere gemui gemitum groan gem- 

gero gerere gessi gestum carry ges- 

gigno gignere genui genitum beget gen- 

gigno for giggno. geno is old. 



LIST OF VERBS. 



123 



Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf 

glisco gliscere 

glocio glocire 

glubo glubere 

gradior gradi 

In compounds -grediri is found 

-gruo -gruere -grui 



Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 


Stem. 




swell 


gli- 




cluck 


gloci-? 




gluptum peel 


glub- 




gressus step 


grad- 



gru- 



Habeo 


habere 


habui 


habitum 


have 


hab- 


haereo 


haerere 


haesi 


haesuni 


stick 


haes- 


haurio 


haurire 


hausi 


haustum 


drain 


haus- 


hebeo 


hebere 






he blunt 


heb-? 


his co 


hiscere 






yawn 


hi- 


humeo 


humere 






be moist 


hum-? 


-icio (for jacio in compounds). 








Ico? 


icere 


ici 


ictum 


strike 


1C- 


imbuo 


imbuere 


inibui 


imbutum 


imbue 


imbu- 


incesso 


incessere 


incessivi 




attack 


incess-i- 


indulgeo indulgere 


indulsi 




yield 


indulg- 


indultum, late. 










induo 


induere 


indui 


indutum 


put on 


indu- 


ineptio 


ineptire 






trifle 


Inepti-? 


infit (no 


other form) 






begins 


? 


inqvam 


(see [235]) 


inqvii 




quoth 


inqvi-? 



intellego (see lego) 
irascor irasci 



iratus 



understand intel-leg- 
be angry ira- 



Jaceo 


jacere 


jacui 


jacitum 


lie 


jac- 


jacio 


jacere 


jeci 


j actum 


throw 


jac- 


jubeo 


jubere 


jussi 


jussum 


bid 


jub- 


jungo 


jungere 


jnnxi 


junctum 


yoke 


jung- 


jiivo 


juvare 


juvi 


jtitum 


aid 


juv- 


Also juvaturus. 










Labor 


labi 




lapsus 


slip 


lab- 


lacesso 


lacessere 


lacessivi 


lacessitum 


provoke 


lacess-i 


lacteo 


lactere 






suck 


lact-? 


laedo 


laedere 


laesi 


laesum 


hurt 


laed- 



Compounds weaken ae to 1 



124 




APPENDIX. 






Pkes. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Pekf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


lambo 


lambere 


Iambi 




lick 


lamb- 


langveo 


langvere 


langvi 




be faint 


langv- 


lavo 


( lavere 
(. lavare 


lavi 


( lotum 
( lautum 


wash 


lav- 


lavo 








Also lavatum. 










lego 


legere 


legi 


lectum 


choose 


leg- 


Perf, 


, -lexi in dl-lego, intel-lego, neg-lego. 




-leo (see 


deleo). 










Hbet 


libere 


libuit 


libitum 


it pleases 


lib- 


Also 


spelled lubet. 








liceo 


licere 


licui 


licitum 


be on sale 


lic- 


liceor 


liceri 




licitus 


bid for 


lic- 


licet 


licere 


licuit 


licitum 


it is allowed lic- 


-Hcio 


-licere 


-lexi, -licui -licitum 


entice 


lac- 


lingo 


lingere 




linctum 


lick 


ling- 


lino 


linere 


levi, Hvi 


litum 


smear 


li- 


linqvo 


linqvere 


liqvi 


-lictum 


leave 


liqv- 


liqveo 


liqvere 


licui 




be clear 


Hqv- 


liqvor 


liqvi 






melt 


liqv- 


liveo 


livere 






be livid 


liv-? 


loqvor 


loqvi 




locutus 


speak 


loqv- 


luceo 


lucere 


luxi 




beam 


luc- 


ludo 


ludere 


lusi 


lusum 


sport 


liid- 


lugeo 


lugere 


luxi 




mourn 


lug- 


luo 


luere 


lui 


-lutum 


pay 


lu- 


Maceo 


macere 






be lean 


mac-? 


maereo 


maerere 






grieve 


maer- ? 


malo 


nialle 


malui (see 225) 


prefer 


ma-vol- 


niando 


niandere 


mandi 


mansum 


chew 


mand- 


maneo 


manere 


mansi 


mansum 


wait 


man- 


e-minui also in 


perfect. 








medeor 


mederi 






cure 


med- 


memmi 


(see [235]) 






remember 


man- 


mereo 


merere 


merui 


meritum 


earn 


mer- 


mergo 


mergere 


mersi 


mersum 


sink 


merg- 


metior 


metiri 




mensus 


measure 


met-? 


meto 


metere 


messui 


messum 


mow 


met- 



LIST OF VEKBS. 



125 



Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. 


Pere. Ind. 


Stjp. or Part. 




Stem. 


metuo nietuere 


metui 


metutus (once) fear 


metu- 


mico micare 


micui 




glitter 


mic- 


-micavi, -micatum in compounds. 






-miniscor -minisci 




-mentus 


call to mind 


man- 


mingo mingere 


minxi 


mictum 




mig- 


Pres. also mejo (for meg-i-o), 








minuo minuere 


minui 


minutum 


lessen 


minu- 


misceo miscere 


rniscui 


mixtum, mistum mix 


misc- 


misereor misereri 




miseritus 


pity 


miser- 


misertus, rare, also rarely an 


active form misereo. 




miseret miserere 


miseruit 


miseritum 


it pities 


miser- 


mitto mittere 


misi 


missum 


send 


mitt- 


molo molere 


molui 


molitum 


grind 


mol- 


moneo monere 


monui 


monitum 


warn 


mon- 


mordeo mordere 


momordi 


raorsum 


bite 


mord- 


morior mori See 


[216] (A) 


(m oritur us) 


die 


mor- 


mortuus sum is used as perfect, moriri is 


old. 




moveo movere 


movi 


motum 


move 


mov- 


muceo mucere 






be moldy 


muc-? 


mulceo mulcere 


mulsi 


mulsum 


soothe 


mulc- 


Also per-mulctus. 










mulgeo mulgere 


mulsi 




milk 


mulg- 


-mungo -inungere 


-munxi 


-munctum 


wipe 


mung- 


Nanciscor nancisci 




nactus, nanctus gain 


nac- 


nascor nasci 




natus 


be born 


na- 



The full stem gna- appears in some compounds. 



neco 



necare 



necto nectere 

neglego (see lego). 
neo nere 

ueqveo (see qveo) 
nexo nexere 

r ningit 

| ningvit 
nitor niti 



ningere 



necui 


( -nectum 


kill 


nexi 


nexum 


join 


nevi 


netum 


spin 
can not 


nexui 




tie 


ninxit 




it snows 




nixus, nisus 


lean 



nect- 

ne- 

ne-qvi- 

nex- 
( ning- 
( ningv- 

nict- 



126 



APPENDIX. 



Pres. Ind. Pees. Inf. 

-niveo -nivere 

noceo nocere 

nolo nolle 

nosco noscere 



Stem. 



Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. 

-nivi, -nixi wink nigv- 

nocui nocitum harm noc- 

nolui See 225 be unwilling ne-vSl- 

novi notum learn no- 

The full stem gno- appears in some compounds, -gnltum is found 
in a-gnitum, co-gnitum. 

nubo nubere nupsi nuptum marry nub- 

■nuo -nuere -nui nod -nu- 

ab-nuiturus once. 



Obliviscor oblivisci 




oblitus 


forget 


ob-liv- ? 


occulo occulere 


occului 


occultum 


conceal 


oc-ciil- 


odi (see 235). 










< -oleo ( -olere 
( -olesco c -olescere 


5 -olevi 
( -olui 


( -oletuni 
( -olitum 


grow 


61? ole-? 


adolesco has ad-ultus. 








j oleo ( olere 
( olo ( olere 


olui 




smell 


61- 


oportet oportere 


oportuit 




it is proper 


oport- 


ordior ordiri 




orsus 


commence 


ord- 


orior oriri See 


[216] (h) 


ortus 


rise 


6r- 


Also oritiirus. 










[ovo] defective. See 


[235].' 









Paciscor pacisci pepigi pactum bargain pac-, pag- 

paenitet paenitere paenituit it repents paenit- 

paeniturum is mentioned by grammarians. 



pansum, passum open . pand- 
pactum, Tpaxictum. fasten pag- 



spai 



parc- 



pando pandere pandi 
pango pangere pegi 

parcere { P g P erci 
( parsi 

parere parui 

parere peperi 

Also pariturus. Compounds have -perire. 

parturio parturire be in labor parttiri- 

pasco pascere pavi pastum feed pas- 

-pescui in compesco and dispesco. 



parco 

pareo 
pario 



parsum 

paritum 
partum 



appear par- 

bring forth par- 







LIST < 


OF VERBS. 




127 


Pees. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


patior 


pati 




passus 


heir 


pat- 


paveo 


pavere 


pavi 




fear 


pav- 


pecto 


pectere 


pexi 


pexum 


comb 


pect- 


pedo 


pedere 


pepedi 






ped- 


pello 


pellere 


pepiili 


pulsum 


drive 


pel- 


pendeo 


pendere 


pependi 


pensum 


hang ■ 


pend- 


pendo 


pendere 


pependi 


pensum 


weigh 


pend- 


pergo 


pergere 


perrexi 


perrectum 


continue 


per-reg- 


-perio 


-perire 


-perui 


-pertum 




per- 


peritus as an adjective, and 


in opperltus 






peto 


petere 


petivi 


petitum 


seek 


pet-i- 


piget 


pigere 


piguit 


pigitum 


it vexes 


Pig- 


pingo 


pingere 


pinxi 


pictum 


paint 


pig- 


pinso 
piso 


( pinsere 
<. pisere 


( pinsui 
( pinsi 


( pinsitum 
( pistum 


pound 


pis- 


pisi 


once, pinsibant once. 








placeo 


placere 


placui 


placitum 


please 


plac- 


plango 


plangere 


planxi 


planctum 


beat 


plang- 


plaudo 


plaudere 


plausi 


plausum 


clap 


plaud- 


Most compounds 


weaken au 


. to o. 






plecto 


plectere 






strike 


plect- 


-plector 


-plecti 




-plexus 


twine 


plect- 


-pleo 


-plere 


-plevi 


-pletum 


fill 


ple- 


plico 


plicare 


( -plicui, 
(. -plicavi 


( -plicitum, 
( plicatum 


fold 


plic- 


pluo 


pluere 


pluit 




rain 


plu- 


pluvit often in Livy. 








polleo 


pollere 






be strong 


poll-? 


polluceo 


pollucere 




polluctum 


offer 


polluc- 


pono 


ponere 


posui 


positum 


place 


PQ-S- 


pono is for po-i 


3ino ; see sino. posivi and posi are 


found, and 


in 


. poetry postus. 









posco poscere poposci pose- 
Compounds retain reduplication. 

possum posse potui See 222 can pot-es 

potior potiri See [216] (li) potitum be master poti- 

poto potare potavi potum, potatum drink pota- 

potum seems to belong to a simpler stem, po-. 



128 




APPENDIX. 






Pres. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


praebeo 


praebere 


praebui 


praebitum 


furnish 


praeb- 


prandeo 


prandere 


prandi 


pransum 


dine 


prand- 


prehendo 


prehendere prehendi 


prehensum 


seize 


( prehend- 
( prend- 


prendo 


prendere 


prendi 


prensum 




premo 


premere 


pressi 


pressum 


press 


prem- 


prof iciscor proficisci 




profectus 


advance 


pro-fac- 


prSnio 


promere 


prompsi 


promptum 


bring out 


prom- 


prurio 


prurire 






itch 


pruri- ? 


psallo 


psallere 


psalli 




play 


psall- 


pudet 


pudere 


puduit 


puditum 


it shames 


piid- 


pungo 

Comp< 


pungere 

Dunds have - 


piipugi 

punxi. 


punctum 


prick 


Pug- 



Qvaero qvaerere qvaesivi qvaesitum seek qvaes-i- 

qvaeso and qvaesumus are old colloquial forms. Compounds 
weaken ae to I. 

qvatio qvatere qvassum shake qvat- 

Perfect -cussi in compounds. See -cutio. 

qveo (228) qvire qvivi qvitum can qvi- 

qveror qveri qvestus complain qveS- 

qviesco qviescere qvievi qvietum rest qvie- 

-qvinisco -qviniscere -qvexi defile qvic- 



Rabo 

rado 

rapio 

ravio 

refert 

rego 

renideo 

reor 

reperio 

repo 

resipisco 

rldeo 

ringor 

rodo 



rabere 
radere 
rapere 

referre 
rqgere 
renidere 
reri 

reperire 
repere 
see sapio 
ridere 
ringi 
rodere 



rapui 

(-rausi) 

retulit 



repperi 
repsi 



rasum 

raptum 

(rausurus) 

rectum 

ratus 

repertum 

reptum 

risum 



scrape 

seize 

be hoarse 

it concerns 

rule 

glitter 

think 

discover 

creep 

laugh 

grin 

gnaw 



rab- 

rad- 

rap- 

rav- 

re-fer- 

reg- 

re-nid- 

ra- 

re-par- 

rep- 

re-sap- 

rld- 

rig- 

r5d- 



LIST OF VERBS. 



129 



Pres. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


rudo 


rudere 


rudivi 




bray 


riid-i- 


rumpo 


rumpere 


rupi 


ruptum 


break 


riip- 


ruo 


ruere 


rui 


rutum 


dash 


ru- 


ruiturus, late. 










Saepio 


saepire 


saepsi 


saeptum 


hedge 


saep- 


salio 


( (salire ?) 




( salitum 


salt 


sal- 


sallo 


C sallere 




(. salsum 






salio 


salire 


salui 






sal- 


Also salivi, rare. 










salve, sef 


[235]. 




* 






sancio 


sancire 


sanxi 


sanctum 


hallow 


sanc- 


sancitum, rare. 










sapio 


sapere 


sapivi 




be wise 


sap- 


Also perfect re-sipui-. 








sarcio 


sarcire 


sarsi 


sartuni 


patch 


sarc- 


sario 


sarire 


sarui, sarivi saritum 


hoe 


sar-, sari-? 


sarpo 


sarpere 




sarptum 


trim 


sarp- 


satago (= 


: sat ago, see 


ago). 








scabo 


scabere 


scabi 




scratch 


scab- 


scalpo 


scalpere 


scalpsi 


scalptum 


scrape 


scalp- 


scando 


scandere 


scandi 


scansum 


climb 


scand- 


scateo 


scatere 






bubble 


scat-? 


scindo 


scindere 


soldi 


scissum 


cut 


scid- 


scicidi is old. 










scisco 


sciscere 


scivi 


scitum 


enact 


sci- 


scribo 


scribere 


scripsi 


scriptum 


write 


scrib- 


sculpo 


sculpere 


sculpsi 


sculp turn 


carve 


sculp- 


seco 


secare 


secui 


sectum 


cut 


sec- 


secaturus, once. 








- 


sedeo 


sedere 


sedi 


sessum 


sit 


sed- 


sentio 


sentire 


sensi 


sensum 


think 


sent-. 


sepelio 


sepelire 


sepelivi 


sepultum 


bury 


sepel- 


seqvor 


seqvi 




secutus 


follow 


seqv- 


sero 


serere 


sevi 


satum 


sow 


sa- 


sero 


serere 


-serui 


-sertum 


put in rows sev- 


serpo 


serpere 


serpsi 


serptum 


er awl 


serp- 



130 



APPENDIX. 



sob 


singulti? 


permit 


si- 


set 


sta- 



Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. 

sido sidere sidi settle sid- 

sedi and sessum (borrowed from sedeo) are also found. 
singultio singultire 
sino sinere sivi situm 

sisto sistere stiti statum 

Compounds keep the reduplication. 
soleo solere solitus 

solitus sum is used as perfect; see [216] (g). 
solvo solvere solvi 

sono ( sonare 

1 sonm 

sono ( sonere 

sonaturus, once. 

sorbeo sorbere sorbui 

Perfect -sorpsi, late and rare. 



be wont sol- 



solutum 
sonitum 



loose 
sound 

swallow 



solv- 
son- 

sorb- 



spargo 


spargere 


sparsi 


sparsum 


scatter 


sparg- 


sperno spernere 
-spicio -spicere 
splendeo splendere 
spondeo spondere 
de-sp6pondi, old. 


sprevi 
-spexi 

spopondi 


spretum 
-spectum 

sponsum 


despise 
look 
sliine 
promise 


sper-, spre' 
spec- 
splend- ? 
spond- 


spuo 

sqvaleo 

statuo 


spuere 

sqvalere 

statuere 


spui 
statui 


sputum 
statutum 


spit 

be rough 

set up 


spu- 

sqval-? 

statu- 


sterno 


sternere 


stravi 


stratum 


strew 


stgr-, stra- 


sternuo 


sternuere 


sternui 




sneeze 


sternu- 


sterto 


stertere 


stertui 




snore 


stert- 


stingvo 
sto 


stingvere 
stare 


-stinxi 
steti 


-stinctum 
statum 


extinguish 
stand 


stingv- 
sta- 


Also staturus, rare. 








strepo 
( strideo 
\ strido 


strepere 
( stridere 
( stridere 


strepui 
stridi 


strepitum 


make a noise strep- 
hiss strid- 


stringo 
struo 


stringere 
struere 


strinxi 
struxi 


strictum 
structum 


graze 
build 


strig- 
strugv- 


sugo sugere 
sum see 212 esse 


suxi 
(fui) 


suctum 
(futurus) 


suck 
be 


sug- 
es- 



Complete tenses and future participle borrowed from [fuo]. 



LIST OF VERBS. 



131 



Pres. Ind. 

sumo 

suo 

surgo 

svadeo 

svesco 



Tabeo 

taceo 

taedet 

tago (old form of tango) . 

tango tangere tetigi 

tego tegere texi 

temno temnere tempsi 

tendo tendere tetendi 

teneo tenere tenui 

tetini is quoted. 
terreo terrere 

( tergeo ( tergere 



Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


sumere 


sumpsi 


sumptum 


take 


sxim- 


suere 


sui 


sutum 


seiv 


su- 


surgere 


surrexi 


surrectum 


rise 


sur-reg- 


svadere 


svasi 


svasum 


persuade 


svad- 


svescere 


svevi 


svetum 


get ivont 


sve- 


tabere 






waste 


tab-? 


tacere 


tacui 


taciturn 


be silent 


tac- 






taesum 


it wearies 


taed- 



tactum touch tag- 

tectum cover teg- 

temptum despise tem- 
tentum, tensum stretch tend- 



( tergo ( tergere 

tero terere 

at-terui, once. 

texo texere 

( tingo ( tingere 

(. tingvo 1 tingvere 

tollo tollere 



terrui 

tersi 

trivi 

texui 
tinxi 



tentuni 

territum 

tersum 

tritum 

textum 
tinctum 



hold 

frighten 
wipe 
rub 

weave 
dye 



ten- 

terr- 
terg- 
ter-, tri- 

tex- 
tingv- 
tol-, tla- 



(sustuli) (sublatum) lift 
The simple tiili and latum have the sense of fero, and the coin- 
pound forms given are used in the sense of tollo. 



tondeo 


tondere 


totondi 


tonsum 


shear 


tond- 


tono 


tonare 


tonui 


tonitum 


thunder 


ton- 


in-tonatus, once. 










torqveo 


torqvere 


torsi 


tortum 


twist 


torqv- 


torreo 


torrere 


torrui 


tostum 


roast 


tors- 


traho 


trahere 


traxi 


tractum 


drag 


trah- 


tremo 


tremere 


tremui 




tremble 


trem- 


tribuo 


tribuere 


tribui 


tributum 


assign 


tribu- 


trudo 


trudere 


trusi 


trtisum 


thrust 


trud- 



132 



APPENDIX. 



Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. 

tueor ( tueri 

tuor \ tui 

tundo tundere tutiidi 

Also perfect re-tundi. 
turgeo turgere tursi 



Perf. Ind. Sup. or Part. Stem. 

tutus, tuitus look at tu- 
tiisum, tunsum thump tiid- 



swell 



turg- 



Ulciscor 


ulcisci 




ultus 


avenge 


ulc- 


ungo 
ungvo 


( ungere 
( ungvere 


unxi 


unctum 


anoint 


ungv- 


urgeo 


urgere 


ursi 




urge 


urg- 


uro 


urere 


ussi 


ustum 


burn 


us- 


iitor 


uti 




usus 


use 


ut- 


Vado 


vadere 


-vasi 


-vasum 


go 


vad- 


valeo 


valere 


valui 


valitum 


be strong 


val- 


vegeo 


vegere 






arouse 


veg-? 


veho 


vehere 


vexi 


vectum 


carry 


veh- 


vello 


vellere 


velli 


vulsum 


pluck 


vel- 


Perfect also vulsi, 


late. 








vendo 


vendere 


vendidi 


venditum 


sell 


ven-d- 


veneo 


venire 


venivi 




to be sold 


ven-i- 


venio 


venire 


veni 


ventum 


come 


ven- 


vereor 


vereri 




veritus 


fear 


ver- 


vergo 


vergere 






incline 


verg- 


verro 


verrere 


verri 


versum 


brush 


verr- 


verto 


vertere 


verti 


versum 


turn 


vert- 


vescor 


vesci 






eat 


vesc- ? 


veto 


vetare 


vetui 


vetitum 


forbid 


vet- 


Also vetavi, rare. 










video 


videre 


vidi 


visum 


see 


vid- 


-vido, see 


divide 










vieo 


viere 




vietum 


plait 


vie- 


Also vietus. 











LIST OF VERBS. 



133 



Pres. Ind. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. Ind. 


Sup. or Part. 




Stem. 


vincio 


vincire 


vinxi 


vinctum 


bind 


vinc- 


vinco 


vincere 


vici 


victum 


conquer 


V1C- 


V1SO 


visere 


visi 




visit 


V1S" 


vivo 


vivere 


vixi 


victum 


live 


vigv- 


volo 


velle 


volui see 225 


wish 


vol- 


volvo 


volvere 


volvi 


volutum 


roll 


volv- 


vomo 


vomere 


vomui 


vomitum 


vomit 


vom- 


voveo 


vovere 


vovi 


votum 


vow 


vov- 



499. INDEX OF TOPICS. 



Ablative case, use of 292-308 

Ablative proper 293-296 

Accent 19, 20 

Accusative case, use of 262-268 

a-declension 52-56 

Adjectives, a- and o-stems .... 70-72 

agreement of 255 

consonant-stems. .91-93 
formation of. . .242-244 

i-stems 106-108 

Adverbs, formation of 248-249 

Alphabet 1 

Appositives, agreement of 254 

-cites, decl. of adjs. in [108] 

Calendar 496 

Case-endings, a-stems 54 

consonant-stems 74, 75 

e-stems 58 

{-stems 99,101 

o-stems 62,63 

w-stems 110, 111 

Cases 42-49 

use of 258-308 

Cognate accusative [262] 

Comitative ablative 304-306 

Comparatives, decl. of [92] 

formation of . . . .119 

Comparison 119-123 

Complete tenses 144 

of pass. [207], [214] 

Composition 252 

Concord, rules of 254-257 



Conditional sentences, forms of 

446-456 

Conjugations 191-193 

Conjunctions, formation of.... 251 

Consonants, classification of 12 

euphony of [12] 

sounds of 6-11 

Consonant declension 73-93 

Dates 487-497 

Dative case, use of 269-272 

Declensions 50, 51 

Defective nouns [H7] 

Defective verbs 235 

Demanding, verbs of [262] 

Demonstrative pronouns . . . 127-137 

Deponent verbs 154 

-dicus, comp. of adjs. in 122 

Diphthongs 4, 5 

Distributive numerals [H8] 

e-declension 57-60 

Endings defined 28, 29 

a-stem nouns 54 

a-stem verbs 194-195 

complete tenses 206 

consonant-stem nouns 

74,75 
consonant-stem verbs 

198, 199 

e-stem nouns 58 

e-stem verbs 196, 197 

{-stem nouns 99, 101 



INDEX OF TOPICS. 



Endings long {-stem verbs . . 203, 204 

o-stem nouns 62, G3 

short {-stem verbs . 200, 202 
simple-stem forms . . . .209 

M-stem nouns 110, 111 

M-stem verbs 198, 199 

-er, steins in, decl. of 80 

comp. of . 121 

-eri, stems in, decl. of 102 

comp. of 121 

-ero, steins in, decl. of 66 

comp. of 121 

Exclamatory sentences [314] 

Factitive verbs, constr [262] 

-Jicus, compar. of adj. in 122 

Finite verb 148, agreement 257 

Future in -so [216] 

imperative [181] 

Gender 30-40 

grammatical and natural 31 
natural, rules of .... . 32-40 

a-stem nouns 56 

consonant-stem nouns 82-90 

e-stem nouns 59, 60 

z'-stem nouns 103-105 

o-stem nouns 69 

it-stem nouns 113 

Genitive case, use of 275-291 

Gerund 150 

use of 348,349 

Gerundive, use of 349 

-{, dat. ending 71 

Imperative, use of 315 

Impersonal verbs 230-234 

Inceptive verbs [161] 

Inchoative verbs [161] 

Incomplete tenses 143 

Indefinite pronouns 140, 141 

Indicative, use of . . . 313, 314 



Infinitive 149 

use of 335-342 

Inflection 21-26 

Instrumental ablative 297, 298 

Interjections, formation of 250 

Interrogative particles 426-434 

pronouns 139 

-io, stems in, decl. of 67 

Irregular declension 114-117 

verbs 215-229 

{-declension 94-108 

{-stem adjectives 106-108 

-ites, decl. of adjs. in [108] 

-ius, gen. ending 71 

Locative ablative 299-303 

Locative case, a-stems 55 

consonant-stems . . 77 

e-stems [58] 

o-stems 65 

use of 273,274 

M-stems [HO] 

-mino, imperative ending [216] 

Mood-and-tense signs 171-178 

Moods 145-147 

use of 313-333 

Nasalizing 160 

Negative particles 422-425 

Nominative case, use of . . . .258-260 
Non-finite verb-forms, use of 334-352 

Nouns, formation of 239-241 

Number 41,253 

Numerals 118 

o-declension 61-69 

Open vowels 3 

Order of words and clauses . 479-486 

Participles 152 

use of 343-347 



INDEX OF TOPICS. 



137 



Passive voice 158, 154 

Passive voice, complete tenses. .153 

Perf . act. endings 189, 190 

Perfect stem of verbs 163-167 

Periphrastic conjugations. .212, 213 

Person 41, 253 

Person-and-number suffixes 179-182 

Personal pronouns 124, 125 

-plex, decl. of adjs. in [108] 

Possessive pronouns 126 

Predicate noun, agreement of. .254 

Prepositions, formation of 251 

use of 268,308 

Present stem of verbs 157-162 

Principal parts of verbs . . . 168, 169 

Pronouns 124-141 

agreement of 256 

use of 435-445 

Quantity, gen. rules 14-18 

sp. rules 364-397 

Questioning, verbs of [262] 

Reduplication, pres. stem 158 

perf. stem 164 

Reflexive meaning of passive. . .154 

Relative pronouns 138 

Reported speech 457-478 

Roots 236 

Semi-vowel stems, decl. of . . . 78, 79 

Sequence of tenses 312 

Stem, defined 27 



Stems, formation of 237, 238 

Subjunctive, use of 316-333 

Suffixes, defined 27 

verbal 179-187 

Superlative 120 

Supine 151 

use of 350-352 

-tat, stems in, decl. of [81] 

Tendencies affecting quantity 

356-363 

Tenses, use of 309-312 

Theme, defined 28, 29 

-trix, decl. of adjs. in [108] 

Two objects, vbs. with [262] 

w-declension 109-113 

v dropped 215 

Verb-forms 142-235 

Verb-stems 155, 167 

Verbal suffixes 170-190 

Verbs, formation of 245-247 

list of 498 

Verse, laws of 353-421 

Versification 398-421 

Vocative case, o-stems 64 

use of 261 

Voice 253 

volus, comp. of compounds of. .122 

Vowels, sound of 2 

euphony of [2] 

Weakening of vowels [2], 76 

Word-formation 236-252 



500. INDEX OF WOEDS. 



[This list contains all words mentioned in the book because of any peculiarity 
of form or construction. - ] 



ABBREVIATIONS . 



abl 




ace 




assim 


assimilation 



comp comparison. 

constr construction. 

cmpcls compounds. 

dat dative. 

deel declension. 

def defective. 

gen genitive. 

gend gender. 



indie indicative. 

inflect inflection. 

irreg irregular. 

loc locative. 



pron. . . . 
quant. . . 
redupl. . 
semi-dep. 
subj. . . . 
vb 



. pronoun, 
quantity. 
, reduplication. 
. semi-deponent, 
subjunctive, 
.verb, 
.with. 



ab assim. [12] 

abies quant. 883 

absens [221] 

accipiter deel. [80] 

acies deel. [58] 

acus gend. [113] 

ad assim. [12] 

ad in cmpcls. w. dat. [269] 

adeps gend. [82] 

aedili abl. [99] 

agger gend. [89] 

ajo def. vb. [235] 

ali( l vi I deel. 141 

aliqvis > 

alius deel. 71, w. abl. [296] 

alter deel. 71 

alvus gend. [69] 



ambo deel. [72], quant. [365] 

amni abl. [99] 

amplius constr. [296] 

amussim ace. [99] 

angvi abl. [99] 

animi loc. [273] 

ante in empds. w. dat. [269] 

ante diem w. ace. [268] 

antes gend. [103] 

Aprili abl. [99] 

Arar deel. [102] 

Arari abl. [99] 

Ararim ace. [99] 

arbos gend. [89], quant. 383 

arcus deel. [110], gend. [113] 

aries quant. 383 

artus deel. [110] 



140 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



as decl. [98] 

assis decl. [98] 

asser gend. [89] 

audeo semi-dep. [216] 

ave def. vb. [235] 

avi .. abl. [99] 

axi abl. [99] 

balneum , decl. [115] 

bene quant. [396] 

bibi redupl. [164] 

bibo redupl. [158] 

bidui constr. [284] 

bonus comp. [123] 

bos decl. [112], quant. [368] 

burim ace. [99] 

buris gend. [103] 

caelum decl. [116] 

calix gend. [82] 

callis gend. [103] 

canis decl. [96] 

caput gend. [82] 

carbasus . . . .gend. [69], decl. [116] 

career gend. [89] 

cardo gend. [86] 

caro decl. [115] 

caulis gend. [103] 

cave w. subj. [315] 

-ce [19], quant. [395] 

celer decl. [93], [108] 

cello [162] 

celo w. two ace. [262] 

Ceres quant. 383 

cinis gend. [89] 

citerior comp. [123] 

citimus ■ . comp. [123] 

cito quant. [396] 

citus quant. [209] 

civi abl. [99] 

clam * w. abl. [308] 

class! abl. [99] 



classis gend. [103] 

clunis gend. [103] 

-cliitus quant. [209] 

cohors gend. [105] 

colli abl. [99] 

collis gend. [103] 

colus gend. [69], [113] 

com assim. [12] 

complures decl. [92] 

con in cmpcls. w. dat. [269] 

cor gend. [82], decl. [98] 

corbi abl. [99] 

corbis gend. [103] 

cortex gend. [83] 

cos decl. [98] 

eras quant. [395] 

cratim ace. [99] 

era vim ace. [99] 

cucumi abl. [99] 

cucumim ace. [99] 

cucumis gend. [89], [103] 

cujus decl. [139] 

-cum [19] 

eupido gend. [84] 

cur quant. [395] 

da quant, [361], [385] 

das quant. [361], [385] 

d&tus quant. [209] 

dea decl. [50] 

dens gend. [105] 

deus decl. 68 

Diana quant. [17] 

die 216 

die loc. [58], [273] 

dies gend. 60 

difficilis * comp. 121 

dignor w. abl. [303] 

dignus w. abl. [300], [303] 

dissimilis comp. 121 

dius quant. [17] 

do irreg. vb. 226, quant. [385] 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



141 



doceo w. two ace. [2G2] 

domi loc. [273] 

domo constr. [293] 

domos constr. [265] 

domui loc. [110] 

donrara constr. [265] 

domus gend. [113], decl. [115] 

dos decl. [98] 

duam subj. [226] 

due ...216 

duim.... subj. [226] 

dum w. pres. [309] 

-dum [19] 

duo decl. [72], quant. [365] 

eampse [132] 

eapse [132] 

eapse [132] 

ebur [76] 

ec( l yi I decl. 141 

ecqvis ) 

edim subj. [223] 

edo irreg. vb. 223 

effigies decl. [58] 

ego decl. 125, quant. [374] 

eheu quant. [17] 

eja quant. [397] 

eluvies decl. [58] 

en quant. [395] 

eo irreg. vb. 227 

eopse [132] 

epulum decl. [115] 

ergo w. gen. [285] 

escit [221] 

escunt [221] 

eumpse [132] 

exseqvias ire [265] 

exterus comp. [123] 

extimus . comp. [123] 

extremus comp. [123] 

fac!. 216 



f acies decl. [58] 

facilis comp. 121 

faex , . decl. [98] 

fames decl. [115] 

familia decl. [54] 

fascis . gend. [103] 

febri abl. [99] 

f ebrim ace. [99] 

fel gend. [88] 

femur [76], decl. [115] 

fero irreg. vb. 224 

fides decl. [58] 

fido semi-dep. [216] 

filia decl. [54] 

fini abl. [99] 

finis gend. [103] 

fio quant. [17], irreg. vb. 229 

follis gend. [103] 

fons gend. [105] 

[for].... def. vb: [235] 

f oras constr. [265] 

f5re I [155], [221], quant. [385] 
forem ) 

forceps gend. [82] 

f orf ex gend. [83] 

fornix gend. [82] 

frater decl. [80] 

fraus decl. [98] 

frenum decl. [116] 

fruor w. abl. [297] 

fuam, etc subj. [221] 

f ungor w. abl. [297] 

fusti abl. [99] 

fustis gend. [103] 

fiiturus [221], quant. [209] 

gaudeo semi-dep. [216] 

gigno redupl. [158] 

glacies decl. [58] 

glis decl. [98] 

gracilis comp. 121 

grex gend. [82] 



142 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



grus decl. [112], quant. [361] 

Hadria gend. [33] 

hand scio an.. w. indie. [323] 

hebes decl. [93], [108] 

hie decl. 134 

hie quant. [395] 

hiems decl. [78], gend. [81] 

hue quant. [395] 

humilis comp. 121 

humi . ...loc. [273] 

humo eonstr. [293] 

humus gend. [69] 

lb! quant. [378] 

id genus [267] 

id temporis [267] 

idem decl. 136, w. dat. [271] 

idus gend. [113] 

igni abl. [99] 

ilico quant. [396] 

ille decl. 131 

illic decl. [135] 

imber decl. [102], gend. [103] 

imbrex gend. [83] 

imbri abl. [99] 

imus comp. [123] 

in assim. [12] 

in in empds. w. dat. [269] 

-inde [19] 

indignus w. abl. [300], [303] 

infernG quant. [396] 

inf erus comp. [123] 

infimus comp. [123] 

infitias ire [263] 

inqvam def . vb. [235] 

instar w. gen. [285] 

inter in empds. w. dat, [269] 

interest w. gen. [291] 

interior comp. [123] 

intimus comp. [123] 

ipse..... .....decl. 132 



ipsus [132] 

is decl. 129 

iste ...decl. 130 

istic decl. [135] 

istuc aetatis [267] 

istus [130] 

ita quant. [397] 

iter decl. [115] 

itus quant. [209] 

jecur [76], decl. [115] 

jocus decl. [116] 

jugerum decl. [115] 

junior comp. [123] 

Jupiter decl. [112] 

juvenis . . . .decl. [96], comp. [123] 

lac gend. [105] 

lacti abl. [101] 

lacus decl. [110] 

lapis gend. [82] 

lar quant. 384 

larix gend. [82] 

later gend. [89] 

lentim ace. [99] 

Liger decl. [102] 

Ligeri abl. [99] 

Ligerim ace. [99] 

linter decl. [102], gend. [103] 

lis decl. [98] 

litus quant. [209] 

locus..! decl. [116] 

longius eonstr. [296] 

lues decl. [112] 

lux decl. [98] 

macte [261] 

magis comp. with, 123 

magnus comp. [123] 

major comp. [123] 

male quant. [396] 

malo irreg. vb. 225 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



143 



malus comp. [123] 

manus gend. [113] 

margo gend. [84] 

mas decl. [98], quant. 384 

mater decl. [80] 

maturus comp. [121] 

maxime comp. with 123 

maximus comp. [123] 

maximus natu [123] 

mel gend. [88] 

melior comp. [123] 

memini def . vb. [235] 

mentis [274] 

meridies gend. 60 

messim ace. [99] 

messis gend. [103] 

-met [19] 

meus decl. 126 

mille decl. [118] 

minimus comp. [123] 

minimus natu [123] 

minor comp. [123] 

minoris [274] 

minus. . .comp. [123], constr. [296] 

miseret w. gen. 281 

modo quant. [396] 

mons gend. [105] 

morior inflect. [216] 

multus comp. [123] 

mus decl. [98] 

navi abl. [99] 

navim ace. [99] 

-ne [19], [314], quant. [395] 

neqveo .irreg. vb. 228 

nescio an w. indie. [323] 

neuter decl. 71 

ningvis decl. [98] 

nix decl. [98] 

nolo irreg. vb. 225 

n5n quant. [395] 

nosco an o-stem, [155] 



nullus decl. 71 

num [314] 

ob assim. [12] 

ob in empds. \v. dat. [269] 

obex gend. [83] 

odi def. vb. 235 

ohe quant. [17], [396] 

olle [130] 

operae est [272] 

optimus comp. [123] 

opus w . abl. [297] 

orbi abl. [99] 

orbis gend. [103] 

ordo gend. [84] 

orior inflect. [216] 

os gend. [89] 

[ovo] def. vb. [235] 

paenitet w. gen. 281 

par quant. 384 

par ...... . .decl. [93], [102], [108] 

paries gend. [82], quant. 383 

parti abl. [99] 

partim ace. [99] 

partus decl. [110] 

parvus comp. [123] 

pater decl. [80] 

pax decl. [98] 

pecten gend. [87] 

pejor comp. [123] 

pelagus decl. [115] 

pello [162] 

pelvi abl. [99] 

pelvim ace. [99] 

penes quant. [397] 

penus gend. [112] 

pes . . .gend. [82], quant. [361], 383 

pessimus comp. [123] 

pessum dare [265] 

pessum ire [265] 

piget '. . . w. gen. 281 



144 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



plebes ...decl. [58] 

plebes decl. [98] 

plebs decl. [98] 

plurimus comp. [123] 

pluris [274] 

plus . .decl. [92], comp. [123], 

constr. [296] 

pons gend. [105] 

porticus gend. [113] 

portus decl. [110] 

possiem, etc subj. [222] 

possum irreg. vb. 222 

post in cmpds. w. dat. [269] 

posterus comp. [123] 

posti abl. [99] 

postis gend. [103] 

postremus comp. [123] 

postridie.w. ace. [268], w. gen. [285] 

postumus comp. [123] 

potessem, etc [222] 

potior w. gen. [290] 

potior . .inflect. [216], w. abl. [298] 

prae in cmpds. w. dat. [269] 

praecox decl. [93], [108] 

praesens [221] 

praesepim ace. [99] 

pridie. . .w. ace. [268], w. gen. [285] 

primus comp. [123] 

prior comp. [123] 

pro in cmpds. w. dat. [269] 

procul ...w. abl. [308] 

prof ecto quant. [396] 

propior. .comp. [123], w. ace. [268] 

propius w. ace. [268] 

prosum irreg. vb. [222] 

proxime w. ace. [268] 

proximus. .comp. [123], w. ace. [268] 

-pte [19], quant, [395] 

pubes quant. 383 

pudet w. gen. 281 

pulvis gend. [89] 

puppi abl. [99] 



puppim ■. ace. [99] 

puta quant. [397] 

qvaesumus [179] 

-qvando [19] 

qvanto . . . tanto [299] 

-qve [19], quant. [395] 

qveo irreg. vb. 228 

qvi decl. 138, quant. [374] 

qvia quant. [397] 

qvid facias, etc w. abl. [297] 

qvid fies, etc w. abl. [297] 

qvin quant. [395] 

qvinam [1-30] 

qvinqvatrus gend. [113] 

Qvintili abl. [99] 

qvis decl. 139 

qvisnam [139] 

qvitus quant. [209] 

qvo . . . eo [299] 

rastrum decl. [116] 

ratus quant. [209] 

ravi abl. [99] 

ravim ace. [99] 

re- quant. [395] 

ref ert w. gen. 291 

res decl. [58] 

restim ace. [99] 

Rhea quant. [17] 

robur [76] 

rumex gend. [83] 

rumi abl. [99] 

rure constr. [293] 

ruri.. loc. [273] 

rus constr. [265] 

rutus quant, [209] 

sal gend. [88], quant. 384 

sallo [162] 

salve def. vb. [235] 

sam pron. [128] 



INDEX OF WORDS. 



145 



sangvis gend. [87], decl. [115] 

sas pron. [128] 

satur decl. [71] 

satus quant. [209] 

scrobis decl. [98], gend. [103] 

scrobs decl. [98] 

securi abl. [99] 

securim ace. [99] 

sedes decl. [96] 

sementim ace. [99] 

senex deel. [115], comp. [123] 

sentis gend. [103] 

series decl. [58] 

sero redupl. [158] 

Sextili abl. [99] 

sic quant. [395] 

siem, etc subj. [221] 

silex gend. [83] 

similis comp. 121 

simul w. abl. [308] 

sin quant. [395] 

sisto redupl. [158] 

siti abl. [99] 

sitim ace. [99] 

situs . quant. [209] 

sodali abl. [99] 

soleo semi-dep. [216] 

solus decl. 71 

sorti abl. [99] 

species decl. [58] 

specus decl. [110], gend. [112] 

spes decl. [58] 

status quant. [209] 

stiti redupl. [164] 

strigili abl. [99] 

sub assim. [12] 

sub in empds. w. dat. [269] 

sui decl. 125 

sum irreg. vb. 221 

sum pron. [128] 

summus comp. [123] 

sumus [179] 



sus decl. [112], quant. [361] 

supellex decl. [115] 

super in empds. w. dat. [269] 

superne quant. [?96] 

superus comp. [123] 

supremus comp. [123] 

taedet w. gen. 281 

tellus gend. [89] 

tenus w. gen. [285] 

teres decl. [93], [108] 

Tiberi abl. [99] 

Tiberim ace. [99] 

tollo [162] 

torqvis gend. [103] 

torris .gend. [103] 

totus decl. 71 

trabes decl. [98] 

trabs decl. [98] 

tres decl. [118] 

tribus decl. [110], gend. [113] 

tridui constr. [284] 

tu decl. 125 

turbo gend. [86] 

turri abl. [99] 

turrim ace. [99] 

tussi abl. [99] 

tussim ace. [99] 

tussis gend. [103] 

ubi quant. [378] 

ullus ..decl. 71 

ulterior comp. [123] 

ultimus comp. [123] 

ungvi abl. [99] 

ungvis gend. [103] 

unus decl. 71 

usus w. abl. [297] 

uter (pron.) decl. 71 

uter decl. [102], gend. [103] 

utor w. abl. [298] 



140 



INDEX OF WOEDS. 



vannus gend. [69] 

varix gend. [82] 

vas decl. [115] 

vates decl. [96] 

-ve [19], quant. [395] 

vectis gend. [103] 

venum dare [265] 

venum ire [265] 

venter decl. [102], gend. [103] 

vera decl. [110] 

vescor w. abl. [298] 

vesper gend. [89], decl. [115] 



veterrimus comp. [123] 

vetus comp. [123] 

vi abl. [99] 

vim ace. [99] 

vir decl. [Q&] 

virile secus [267] 

virus decl. [115] 

vis decl. [115], quant. [361] 

volo irreg. vb. 225 

volumus [179] 

vomer gend. [89] 

vulgus . . decl. [115] 



IHHK 




